Evolutionary origin of endochondral ossification: the transdifferentiation hypothesis

Abstract

The vertebrate endoskeleton results from the piecemeal assembly of bone and cartilage as well as additional types of calcified extracellular matrices produced by seemingly hybrid cell types of intermediate phenotypes between osteoblasts and chondrocytes. Hence, shedding light on the emergence and subsequent diversification of skeletal tissues represents a major challenge in vertebrate evolutionary developmental biology. A 150-year-old debate in the field was recently solved by lineage tracing experiments demonstrating that, during mouse endochondral bone development, a subset of chondrocytes evades apoptosis and transdifferentiates into osteoblasts at the chondro-osseous junction. Here, we interpret these new data from a broad phylogenetic perspective, integrating fossil, histological, cellular, and genetic evidence from a wide range of vertebrates. We propose a testable scenario according to which transdifferentiation played a fundamental role in the emergence of endochondral ossification, an osteichthyan-specific evolutionary novelty. The remarkable skeletal cell plasticity might be contingent on the similar architectures of the osteoblastic and chondrocytic gene regulatory networks, thereby providing a unifying mechanism underlying both complete transdifferentiation as well as partial cell type conversions observed in intermediate skeletal tissues such as the chondroid bone or globuli ossei.