Artículos de revistas
Organic And Hybrid Solar Cells Based On Small Molecules
Registro en:
Green Energy And Technology. , v. 33, n. , p. 57 - 114, 2011.
10.1007/978-0-85729-638-2_2
2-s2.0-84883198907
Autor
Almeida L.C.P.
de Freitas J.N.
Freitas F.S.
Nogueira A.F.
Institución
Resumen
In this chapter, the recent literature involving small molecule-based organic solar cells (OSCs) will be reviewed. The number of papers published in the fields of organic semiconductor and OSCs has grown exponentially in the past decade. Such growth is stimulated by the exciting properties of these materials, combined with the possibility to produce colored, flexible, transparent and cheap solar cells. The main focus of this review is to give an overview and a perspective of the recent advances in this area, highlighting the most interesting results, novel materials as well as their limitations and challenges. This chapter will explore the properties and applications of several classes of small organic molecules, as electron donors and acceptors, dyes, and hole transport materials. Different architectures and techniques will be also discussed in the assembly of double, heterojunction, and multilayer films. 33 57 114 Nelson, J., (2004) The physics of solar cells, , Imperial College Press, London Brabec, C.J., Dyakonov, V., Parisi, J., Sariciftci, N.S., (2003) Organic photovoltaics: Concepts and realization, , Springer, Berlin Sun, S.-S., Sariciftci, N.S., (2005) Organic photovoltaics, , Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton Würfel, P., (2009) Physics of solar cells, , Wiley-VCH, Weinheim Archer, M.D., Hill, R., (2005) Clean electricity from photovoltaics, , Imperial College Press, London Archer, M.D., Nozik, A.J., (2008) Nanostructured and photoelectrochemical systems for solar photon conversion, , Imperial College Press, London Brabec, C., Dyakonov, V., Scherf, U., (2009) Organic photovoltaics, , Wiley-VCH, Weinheim Li, J.L., Dierschke, F., Wu, J.S., Grimsdale, A.C., Mullen, K., Poly(2, 7-carbazole) and perylene tetracarboxydiimide: A promising donor/acceptor pair for polymer solar cells (2006) J Mater Chem, 16, pp. 96-100 Sharma, G.D., Suresh, P., Mikroyannidis, J.A., Stylianakis, M.M., Efficient bulk heterojunction devices based on phenylenevinylene small molecule and perylene-pyrene bisimide (2010) J Mater Chem, 20, pp. 561-567 Silvestri, F., Irwin, M.D., Beverina, L., Facchetti, A., Pagani, G.A., Marks, T.J., Efficient squaraine-based solution processable bulk-heterojunction solar cells (2008) J Am Chem Soc, 130, pp. 17640-17641 Balakrishnan, K., Datar, A., Baddo, T., Huang, J., Otiker, R., Yen, M., Zhao, J., Zang, L., Effect of side-chain substituents on self-assembly of perylene diimide molecules: Morphology control (2006) J Am Chem Soc, 128, pp. 7390-7398 Xue, J., Uchida, S., Rand, B.P., Forrest, S.R., 4.2% efficient organic photovoltaic cells with low series resistances (2004) Appl Phys Lett, 84, pp. 3013-3015 Xue, J., Rand, B.P., Uchida, S., Forrest, S.R., A hybrid planar-mixed molecular heterojunction photovoltaic cell (2005) Adv Mater, 17, pp. 66-70 Shockley, W., Queisser, H.J., Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p-n junction solar cells (1961) J Appl Phys, 32, p. 510 Schueppel, R., Timmreck, R., Allinger, N., Mueller, T., Furno, M., Uhrich, C., Leo, K., Riede, M., Controlled current matching in small molecule organic tandem solar cells using doped spacer layers (2010) J Appl Phys, 107, p. 044503 Hadipour, A., De Boer, B., Blom, P.W.M., Organic tandem and multi-junction solar cells (2008) Adv Funct Mater, 18, pp. 169-181 Hadipour, A., De Boer, B., Blom, P.M.W., Device operation of organic tandem solar cells (2008) Org Electron, 9, pp. 617-624 Ameri, T., Dennler, G., Lungenschmied, C., Brabec, C.J., Organic tandem solar cells: A review (2009) Energy Environ Sci, 2, pp. 347-363 Hiramoto, M., Suezaki, M., Yokoyama, M., Effect of thin gold interstitial-layer on the photovoltaic properties of tandem organic solar cell (1990) Chem Lett, 19, pp. 327-330 Forrest, S.R., The limits to organic photovoltaic cell efficiency (2005) MRS Bull, 30, pp. 28-32 Yakimov, A., Forrest, S.R., High photovoltage multiple-heterojunction organic solar cells incorporating interfacial metallic nanoclusters (2002) Appl Phys Lett, 80, pp. 1667-1669 Winzenberg, K.N., Kemppinem, P., Fanchini, G., Bown, M., Collins, G.E., Forsyth, G.M., Hegedus, K., Wattkins, S.E., Dibenzo[b, def]chrysene derivatives: Solution-processable small molecules that deliver high power-conversion efficiencies in bulk heterojunction solar cells (2009) Chem Mater, 21, pp. 5701-5703 Rand, B.P., Peumans, P., Forrest, S.R., Long-range absorption enhancement in organic tandem thin-film solar cells containing silver nanoclusters (2004) J Appl Phys, 12, pp. 7519-7526 Triyana, K., Yasuda, T., Fujita, K., Tsutsui, T., Effects of different materials used for internal floating electrode on the photovoltaic properties of tandem type organic solar cell (2004) Jpn J Appl Phys Part I, 43, pp. 2352-2356 Triyana, K., Yasuda, T., Fujita, K., Tsutsui, T., Organic tandem and multi junction solar cells (2004) Thin Solid Films, 447, pp. 198-202 Xue, J., Uchida, S., Rand, B.P., Forrest, S.R., Asymmetric tandem organic photovoltaic cells with hybrid planar-mixed molecular heterojunctions (2004) Appl Phys Lett, 85, pp. 5757-5759 Peumans, P., Yakimov, A., Forrest, S.R., Small molecular weight organic thin-film photodetectors and solar cells (2003) J Appl Phys, 93, pp. 3693-3723 Drechsel, J., Männig, B., Kozlowski, F., Pfeiffer, M., Leo, K., Efficient organic solar cells based on a double p-i-n architecture using doped wide-gap transport layers (2005) Appl Phys Lett, 86, p. 244102 Yu, B., Zhu, F., Wang, H., Li, G., Yan, D., All-organic tunnel junctions as connecting units in tandem organic solar cell (2008) J Appl Phys, 104, p. 114503 Chandrasekhar, S., Sadashiva, B.K., Suresh, K.A., Liquid-crystals of disc-like molecules (1977) Pramana, 9, pp. 471-480 Kumar, S., Self-organization of disc-like molecules: Chemical aspects (2006) Chem Soc Rev, 35, pp. 83-109 Adam, D., Schuhmacher, P., Simmerer, J., Haussling, L., Siemensmeyer, K., Etzbacj, K.H., Ringsdorf, H., Haarer, D., Fast photoconduction in the highly ordered columnar phase of a discotic liquid-crystal (1994) Nature, 371, pp. 141-143 Lloyd, M.T., Mayer, A.C., Subramanian, S., Mourney, D.A., Herman, D.J., Bapat, A.V., Anthony, J.E., Malliaras, G.G.J., Efficient solution-processed photovoltaic cells based on an anthradithiophene/fullerene blend (2007) J Am Chem Soc, 129, pp. 9144-9149 van de Craats, A.M., Warman, J.M., Fechtenkotter, A., Brand, J.D., Harbison, M.A., Müllen, K., Record charge carrier mobility in a room-temperature discotic liquid-crystalline derivative of hexabenzocoronene (1999) Adv Mater, 11, pp. 1469-1472 Sergeyev, S., Pisula, W., Geerts, Y., Discotic liquid crystals: A new generation of organic semiconductors (2007) Chem Soc Rev, 36, pp. 1902-1929 Woon, K.L., Aldred, M.P., Richards, G.J., Vlachos, P., Mehl, G.H., Kelly, S.M., O'Neill, M., Electronic charge transport in extended nematic liquid crystals (2006) Chem Mater, 18, pp. 2311-2317 Kumar, S., Discotic liquid crystals for solar cells (2002) Curr Sci India, 82, pp. 256-257 Grelet, E., Bock, H., Control of the orientation of thin open supported columnar liquid crystal films by the kinetics of growth (2006) Europhys Lett, 73, pp. 712-718 Archambeau, S., Seguy, I., Jolinat, P., Farenc, J., Destruel, P., Nguyen, T.P., Bock, H., Grelet, E., Stabilization of discotic liquid organic thin films by ITO surface treatment (2006) Appl Surf Sci, 253, pp. 2078-2086 Charlet, E., Grelet, E., Brettes, P., Bock, H., Saadaoui, H., Cisse, L., Destruel, P., Seguy, I., Ultrathin films of homeotropically aligned columnar liquid crystals on indium tin oxide electrodes (2008) Appl Phys Lett, 92, pp. 1-3 Schmidt-Mende, L., Fechtenkotter, A., Mullen, K., Moons, E., Friend, R.H., McKenzie, J.D., Self-organized discotic liquid crystals for high-efficiency organic photovoltaics (2001) Science, 293, pp. 1119-1122 Lemaur, V., Da Silva Filho, D.A., Coropceanu, V., Lehmann, M., Greerts, Y., Piris, J., Debije, M.G., Cornil, J., Charge transport properties in discotic liquid crystals: A quantum-chemical insight into structure-property relationships (2004) J Am Chem Soc, 126, pp. 3271-3279 van de Craats, A.M., Warman, J.M., The core-size effect on the mobility of charge in discotic liquid crystalline materials (2001) Adv Mater, 13, pp. 130-133 Kronenberg, N.M., Deppisch, M., Würthner, F., Lademann, H.W.A., Deing, K., Meerholz, K., Bulk heterojunction organic solar cells based on merocyanine colorants (2008) Chem Commun, pp. 6489-6491 Tracz, A., Jeszka, J.K., Watson, M.D., Pisula, W., Müllen, K., Pakula, T., Uniaxial alignment of the columnar super-structure of a hexa (alkyl) hexa-peri-hexabenzocoronene on untreated glass by simple solution processing (2003) J Am Chem Soc, 125, pp. 1682-1683 Pisula, W., Tomovi, Z., El Hamaoui, B., Watson, M.D., Pakula, T., Müllen, K., Control of the homeotropic order of discotic hexa-peri-hexabenzocoronenes (2005) Adv Funct Mater, 15, pp. 893-904 Li, J., Kastler, M., Pisula, W., Willem, J., Robertson, F., Wasserfallen, D., Grimsdale, A.C., Müllen, K., Organic bulk-heterojunction photovoltaics based on alkyl substituted discotics (2007) Adv Funct Mater, 17, pp. 2528-2533 Wong, W.W.H., Ma, C.-Q., Pisula, W., Yan, C., Feng, X., Jones, D.J., Müllen, K., Holmes, A.B., Self-assembling thiophene dendrimers with a hexa-perihexabenzocoronene core-synthesis, characterization and performance in bulk heterojunction solar cells (2010) Chem Mater, 22, pp. 457-466 Schmidt-Mende, L., Fechtenkotter, A., Mullen, K., Friend, R.H., McKenzie, J.D., Efficient organic photovoltaics from soluble discotic liquid crystalline materials (2002) Physica E, 14, pp. 263-267 Liu, S.-G., Sui, G., Cormier, R.A., Self-organizing liquid crystal perylene diimide thin films: Spectroscopy, crystallinity, and molecular orientation (2002) J Phys Chem B, 106, pp. 1307-1315 Schmidt-Mende, L., Watson, M., Müllen, K., Friend, R.H., Organic thin film photovoltaic devices from discotic materials (2003) Mol Cryst Liq Cryst, 396, pp. 73-90 Schmidtke, J.P., Friend, R.H., Kastler, M., Müllen, K., Cobtrol of morphology in efficient photovoltaic diodes from discotic liquid crystals (2006) J Chem Phys, 124, pp. 1-6 Gregg, B.A., Fox, M.A., Bard, A.J., Photovoltaic effect in symmetrical cells of a liquidcrystal porphyrin (1990) J Phys Chem, 94, pp. 1586-1598 Petristch, K., Friend, R.H., Lux, A., Rozenberg, G., Moratti, S.C., Holmes, A.B., Liquid crystalline phthalocyanines in organic solar cells (1999) Synth Metals, 102, pp. 1776-1777 Ma, C.-Q., Fonrodona, M., Schikora, M.C., Wienk, M.M., Janssen, R.A.J., Bauerle, P., Solution-processed bulk-heterojunction solar cells based on monodisperse dendritic oligothiophenes (2008) Adv Funct Mater, 18, pp. 3323-3331 Levitsky, I.A., Euler, W.B., Tokranova, N., Xu, B., Castracane, J., Hybrid solar cells based on porous Si and copper phthalocyanine derivatives (2004) Appl Phys Lett, 85, pp. 6245-6247 Boden, N., Bushby, R.J., Clements, J., Mechanism of quasi-one-dimensional electronic conductivity in disotic liquid-crystals (1993) J Chem Phys, 98, pp. 5920-5931 Boden, N., Bushby, R.J., Cammidge, A.N., Clements, J., Luo, R., Donovan, K.J., Transient photoconductivity and dark conductivity in discotic liquid crystals (1995) Mol Cryst Liq Cryst, 261, pp. 251-257 Kumar, S., Pal, S.K., Kumar, P.S., Lakshminarayanan, V., Novel conducting nanocomposites: Synthesis of triphenylene-covered gold nanoparticles and their insertion into a columnar matrix (2007) Soft Matter, 3, pp. 896-900 Kumar, P.S., Kumar, S., Lakshminarayanan, V., Electrical conductivity studies on discotic liquid crystal-ferrocenium donor-acceptor systems (2008) J Phys Chem B, 112, pp. 4865-4869 Kumar, P.S., Kumar, S., Lakshminarayanan, V., Hybrid organic/inorganic nanocomposite as a quasi-one-dimentsional semiconductor under ambient conditions (2009) J Appl Phys, 106, pp. 1-6 Schmidt, J., Dierking, I., Localization and imaging of local shunts in solar cells using polymer-dispersed liquid crystals (2001) Prog Photovoltaics, 9, pp. 263-271 Koeppe, R., Bossart, O., Calzaferre, G., Sariciftci, N.S., Advanced photon-harvesting concepts for low-energy gap organic solar cells (2007) Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells, 91, pp. 986-995 Liu, Y.X., Summers, M.A., Edder, C., Frechet, J.M.J., McGehee, M.D., Using resonance energy transfer to improve exciton harvesting in organic-inorganic hybrid photovoltaic cells (2005) Adv Mater, 17, pp. 2960-2964 Hong, Z.R., Lessmann, R., Maennig, B., Huang, Q., Harada, K., Riede, M., Leo, K., Antenna effects and improved efficiency in multiple heterojunction photovoltaic cells based on pentacene, zinc phthalocyanine, and C60 (2009) J Appl Phys, 106, pp. 1-6 Velusamy, M., Huang, J.-H., Hsu, Y.-C., Chou, H.-H., Ho, K.-C., Wu, P.-L., Chang, W.-H., Chu, C.-W., Dibenzo[f, h]thieno[3, 4-b] quinoxaline-based small molecules for efficient bulk-heterojunction solar cells (2009) Org Lett, 11, pp. 4898-4901 Imahori, H., Fukuzumi, S., Porphyrin-and fullerene-based molecular photovoltaic devices (2004) Adv Funct Mater, 14, pp. 525-536 Zhang, C., Tong, S.W., Jiang, C., Kang, E.T., Chan, D.S.H., Zhu, C.X., Efficient multilayer organic solar cells using the optical interference peak (2008) Appl Phys Lett, 93, pp. 1-3 Dastoor, P.C., McNeill, C.R., Frohne, H., Foster, C.J., Dean, B., Fell, C.J., Belcher, W.J., Reimers, J.R., Understanding and improving solid-state polymer/C60-fullerene bulk-heterojunction solar cells using ternary porphyrin blends (2007) J Phys Chem C, 111, pp. 15415-15426 Burke, K.B., Belcher, W.J., Thomsen, L., Watts, B., McNeill, C.R., Ade, H., Dastoor, P.C., Role of solvent trapping effects in determining the structure and morphology of ternary blend organic devices (2009) Macromolecules, 42, pp. 3098-3103 Belcher, W.J., Wagner, K.I., Dastoor, P.C., The effect of porphyrin inclusion on the spectral response of ternary P3HT:Porphyrin:PCBM bulk heterojunction solar cells (2007) Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells, 91, pp. 447-452 Shao, Y., Yang, Y., Efficient organic heterojunction photovoltaic cells based on triplet materials (2005) Adv Mater, 17, pp. 2841-2844 Schulz, G.L., Holdcroft, S., Conjugated polymers bearing iridium complexes for triplet photovoltaic devices (2008) Chem Mater, 20, pp. 5351-5355 Yang, C.-M., Wu, C.-H., Liao, H.-H., Lai, K.Y., Cheng, H.P., Horng, S.F., Meng, H.F., Shy, J.T., Enhanced photovoltaic response of solar cell by singlet-tot-triplet exciton conversion (2007) Appl Phys Lett, 90, pp. 1-3 Li, Y., Mastria, R., Li, K., Fiore, A., Wang, Y., Cingolani, R., Manna, L., Gigli, G., Improved photovoltaic performance of bilayer heterojunction photovoltaic cells by triplet materials and tetrapod-shaped colloidal nanocrystals doping (2009) Appl Phys Lett, 95, pp. 1-3 Guo, F.Q., Kim, Y.G., Reynolds, J.R., Schanze, K.S., Platinum-acetylide polymer based solar cells: Involvement of the triplet state for energy conversion (2006) Chem Commun, pp. 1887-1889 Shirota, Y., Organic materials for electronic and optoelectronic devices (2000) J Mater Chem, 10, pp. 1-25 Hatton, R.A., Blanchard, N.P., Miller, A.J., Silva, S.R.P., A multi-wall carbon nanotubemolecular semiconductor composite for bi-layer organic solar cells (2007) Physica E, 37, pp. 124-127 Hatton, R.A., Blanchard, N.P., Stolojan, V., Miller, A.J., Silva, S.R.P., Nanostructured copper phthalocyanine-sensitized multiwall carbon nanotube films (2007) Langmuir, 23, pp. 6424-6430 O'Regan, B., Grätzel, M., A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO2 films (1991) Nature, 353, pp. 737-740 Grätzel, M., (2001) Measured under standard air mass 1.5 reporting conditions, PV calibration, , Laboratory of the National Energy Research Laboratory (NREL), Golden Hinsch, A., Kroon, J.M., Späth, M., van Roosmale, J.A.M., Bakker, N.J., Sommeling, P., van der Burg, N., Niepmann, R., (2000) Proceedings of the 16th European photovoltaic solar energy conference and exhibition, , In: Glasgow Nogueira, A.F., Durrant, J.R., De Paoli, M.-A., Dye-sensitized nanocrystalline solar cells employing a polymer electrolyte (2001) Adv Mater, 13, pp. 826-830 De Freitas, J.N., Nogueira, A.F., De Paoli, M.-A., New insights into dye-sensitized solar cells with polymer electrolytes (2009) J Mater Chem, 19, pp. 5279-5294 Freitas, F.S., De Freitas, J.N., Ito, B.I., De Paoli, M.-A., Nogueira, A.F., Electrochemical and structural characterization of polymer gel electrolytes based on a PEO copolymer and an imidazolium-based ionic liquid for dye-sensitized solar cells (2009) Appl Mater Interfaces, 1, pp. 2870-2877 Bach, U., Lupo, D., Comte, P., Moser, J.E., Weissortel, F., Salbeck, J., Spreitzer, H., Grätzel, M., Solid-state dye-sensitized mesoporous TiO2 solar cells with high photon-to-electron conversion efficiencies (1998) Nature, 395, pp. 583-585 Kroeze, J.E., Hirata, N., Schmidt-Mende, L., Orizu, C., Ogier, S.D., Carr, K., Grätzel, M., Durrant, J.R., Parameters influencing charge separation in solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells using novel hole conductors (2006) Adv Func Mater, 16, pp. 1832-1838 Shirota, Y., Kageyama, H., Charge carrier transporting molecular materials and their applications in devices (2007) Chem Rev, 107, pp. 953-1010 Poplavskyy, D., Nelson, J., Nondispersive hole transport in amorphous films of methoxy-spirofluo Roncali, J., Synthetic principles for bandgap control in linear pi-conjugated systems (1997) Chem Rev, 97, pp. 173-205 Roncali, J., Linear-conjugated systems derivatized with C60-fullerene as molecular heterojunctions for organic photovoltaics (2005) Chem Soc Rev, 34, pp. 483-495 He, C., He, Q., Yi, Y., Wu, G., Bai, F., Shuai, Z., Li, Y., Improving the efficiency of processable organic photovoltaic devices by a star-shaped molecular geometry (2008) J Mater Chem, 18, pp. 4085-4090 Zhang, J., Yang, Y., He, C., He, Y., Zhao, G., Li, Y., Solution-processable star-shaped photovoltaic organic molecule with triphenylamine core and benzothiadiazole-thiophene arms (2009) Macromolecules, 42, pp. 7619-7622 Wu, G., Zhao, G., He, C., Zhang, J., He, Q., Chen, X., Li, Y., Synthesis and photovoltaic properties of a star-shaped molecule with triphenylamine as core and benzo[1, 2, 5]thiadiazol vinylene as arms (2009) Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells, 93, pp. 108-113 Li, W., Du, C., Li, F., Zhou, Y., Fahlman, M., Bo, Z., Zhang, F., Benzothiadiazole-based linear and star molecules: Design, synthesis, and their application in bulk heterojunction organic solar cells (2009) Chem Mater, 21, pp. 5327-5334 Li, K., Qu, J., Xu, B., Zhou, Y., Liu, L., Peng, P., Tian, W., Synthesis and photovoltaic properties of a novel solution-processable triphenylamine-based dendrimers with sulfonyldibenzene cores (2009) New J Chem, 33, pp. 2120-2127 He, C., He, Q., Yang, X., Wu, G., Yang, C., Bai, F., Shuai, Z., Li, Y., Synthesis and photovoltaic properties of a solution-processable organic molecule containing triphenylamine and DCM moieties (2007) J Phys Chem C, 111, pp. 8661-8666 Xue, L., He, J., Gu, X., Yang, Z., Xu, B., Tian, W., Efficient bulk-heterojunction solar cells based on a symmetrical D-A-D organic dye molecule (2009) J Phys Chem C, 113, pp. 12911-12917 Zhao, G., Wu, G., He, C., Bai, F.-Q., Xi, H., Zhang, H.-X., Li, Y., Solution-processable multiarmed organic molecules containing triphenylamine and DCM moieties: Synthesis and photovoltaic properties (2009) J Phys Chem C, 113, pp. 2636-2642 Tang, C.W., Two layer organic photovoltaic cell (1986) Appl Phys Lett, 48, pp. 183-185 Takahashi, K., Asano, M., Imoto, K., Yamaguchi, T., Komura, T., Nakamura, J., Murata, K., Sensitization effect of porphyrin dye on the photocurrent of Al/polythiophene schottkybarrier cells (2003) J Phys Chem B, 107, pp. 1646-1652 Takahashi, K., Nakajima, I., Imoto, K., Yamaguchi, T., Komura, T., Murata, K., Sensitization effect by porphyrin in polythiophene/perylene dye two-layer solar cells (2003) Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells, 76, pp. 115-124 Peumans, P., Forrest, S.R., Very-high-efficiency double-heterostructure copper phthalocyanine/C-60 photovoltaic cells (2001) Appl Phys Lett, 79, pp. 126-128 Stübinger, T., Brütting, W., Exciton diffusion and optical interference in organic donor-acceptor photovoltaic cells (2001) J Appl Phys, 90, pp. 3632-3641 Ma, B., Woo, C.H., Miyamoto, Y., Frechet, J.M.J., Solution processing of a small molecule, subnaphthalocyanine, for efficient organic photovoltaic cells (2009) Chem Mater, 21, pp. 1413-1417 Matsuo, Y., Sato, Y., Niinomi, T., Soga, I., Tanaka, H., Nakamura, E., Columnar structure in bulk heterojunction in solution-processable three-layered p-i-n organic photovoltaic devices using tetrabenzoporphyrin precursor and silylmethyl[60]fullerene (2009) J Am Chem Soc, 131, pp. 16048-16050 Huang, X., Zhu, C., Zhang, S., Li, W., Guo, Y., Zhan, X., Liu, Y., Bo, Z., Porphyrindithienothiophene-conjugate copolymers: Synthesis and their applications in field-effect transistors and solar cells (2008) Macromolecules, 41, pp. 6895-6902 Tamayo, A.B., Walker, B., Nguyen, T.Q., A low band gap, solution processable oligothiophene with a diketopyrrolopyrrole core for use in organic solar cells (2008) J Phys Chem C, 112, pp. 11545-11551 Tamayo, A.B., Dang, X.D., Walker, B., Seo, J., Kent, T., Nguyen, T.Q., A low band gap, solution processable oligothiophene with a dialkylated diketopyrrolopyrrole chrmophore for use in bulk heterojunction solar cells (2009) Appl Phys Lett, 94, pp. 1-3 Walker, B., Tamayo, A.B., Dang, X.-D., Nanoscale phase separation and high photovoltaic efficiency in solution-processed, small-molecule bulk heterojunction solar cells (2009) Adv Funct Mater, 19, pp. 3063-3069 Tamayo, A., Kent, T., Tantitiwat, M., Dante, M.A., Rogers, J., Nguyen, T.-Q., Influence of alkyl substituents and thermal annealing on the film morphology and performance of solution processed, diketopyrrolopyrrole-based bulk heterojunction solar cells (2009) Energy Environ Sci, 2, pp. 1180-1186 Rand, B.P., Li, J., Xue, J., Holmes, R.J., Thompson, M.E., Forrest, S.R., Organic doubleheterostructure photovoltaic cells employing thick tris(acetylacetonato)ruthenium(III) exciton-blocking layers (2005) Adv Mater, 17, pp. 2714-2718 Li, G., Shrotriya, V., Huang, J., Yao, Y., Moriarty, T., Emery, K., Yang, Y., High-efficiency solution processable polymer photovoltaic cells by self-organization of polymer blends (2005) Nat Mater, 4, pp. 864-868 Peet, J., Kim, J.Y., Coates, N.E., Moses, D., Heeger, A.J., Bazan, G.C., Efficiency enhancement in low-bandgap polymer solar cells by processing with alkane dithiols (2007) Nat Mater, 6, pp. 497-500 Goh, C., Scully, S.R., McGehee, M.D., Effects of molecular interface modification in hybrid organic-inorganic photovoltaic cells (2007) J Appl Phys, 101, pp. 1-12 Huynh, W.U., Dittmer, J.J., Alivisatos, A.P., Hybrid nanorod-polymer solar cells (2002) Science, 295, pp. 2425-2427 Kietzke, T., Egbe, D.A.M., Horhold, H.H., Neher, D., Comparative study of M3EH-PPVbased bilayer photovoltaic devices (2006) Macromolecules, 39, pp. 4018-4022 Koetse, M., Sweelssen, J., Hoekerd, K., Schoo, H., Efficient polymer: Polymer bulk heterojunction solar cells (2006) Appl Phys Lett, 88, pp. 1-3 McNeill, C.R., Abrusci, A., Zaumseil, J., Wilson, R., McKiernan, M.J., Burroughes, J.H., Halls, J.J.M., Friend, R.H., Dual electron donor/electron acceptor character of a conjugated polymer in efficient photovoltaic diodes (2007) Appl Phys Lett, 90, pp. 1-3 Ooi, Z.E., Tam, T.L., Shin, R.Y.C., Chen, Z.K., Kietzke, T., Sellinger, A., Baumgarten, M., de Mello, J.C., Solution processable bulk-heterojunction solar cells using a small molecule acceptor (2008) J Mater Chem, 18, pp. 4619-4622 Schubert, M., Yin, C., Castellani, M., Bange, S., Tam, T.L., Sellinger, A., Hörhold, H.-H., Neher, D., Heteojunction topology versus fill factor correlations in novel hybrid smallmolecular/polymeric solar cells (2009) J Chem Phys, 130, pp. 1-9 Inal, S., Castellani, M., Sellinger, A., Neher, D., Relationship of photophysical properties and the device performance of novel hybrid small-molecular/polymeric dolar cells (2009) Macromol Rapid Commun, 30, pp. 1263-1268 Kietzke, T., Shin, R.Y.C., Egbe, D.A.M., Chen, Z.K., Sellinger, A., Effect of annealing on the characteristics of organic solar cells: Polymer blends with a 2-vinyl-4, 5-dicyanoimidazole derivative (2007) Macromolecules, 40, pp. 4424-4428 Schin, R.Y.C., Kietzke, T., Sudhakar, S., Dodabalapur, A., Chen, Z.-K., Sellinger, A., N-type conjugated materials based on 2-vinyl-4, 5-dicyanoimidazoles and their use in solar cells (2007) Chem Mater, 19, pp. 1892-1894 Martinson, A.B.F., Massari, A.M., Lee, S.J., Gurney, R.W., Splan, K.E., Hupp, J.T., Nguyen, S.T., Organic photovoltaics interdigitated on the molecular scale (2006) J Electrochem Soc, 153, pp. A527-A535 Smith, A.R.G., Ruggles, J.L., Yu, A., Gentle, I.R., Multilayer nanostructured porphyrin arrays constructed by layer-by-layer self-assembly (2009) Langmuir, 25, pp. 9873-9878 Yui, T., Kameyama, T., Sasaki, T., Torimoto, T., Takagi, K., Pyrene-to-porphyrin excited singlet energy transfer in LBL-deposited LDH nanosheets (2007) J Porphyr Phthalocyanines, 11, pp. 428-433 Li, L.S., Jia, Q.X., Li, A.D.Q., Effects of organic self-assembled polymer and metal phthalocyanine multilayers on the surface photovoltaic properties of indium tin oxide and titanium oxide (2002) Chem Mater, 14, pp. 1159-1165 Alencar, W.S., Crespilho, F.N., Santos, M.R.M.C., Zucolotto, V., Oliveira Jr., O.N., Silva, W.C., Influence of film architecture on the charge-transfer reactions of metallophthalocyanine layer-by-layer films (2007) J Phys Chem C, 111, pp. 12817-12821 Arakawa, T., Munaoka, T., Akiyama, T., Yamada, S.W., Effects of silver nanoparticles on photoelectrochemical responses of organic dyes (2009) J Phys Chem C, 113, pp. 11830-11835 Nishiyama, F., Yokoyama, T., Kamikado, T., Yokoyama, S., Mashiko, S., Layer-by-layer growth of porphyrin supramolecular thin films (2006) Appl Phys Lett, 88, pp. 1-3 Zhang, B., Mu, J., Li, X.Q., Linear assemblies of aged CdS particles and cationic porphyrin in multilayer films (2006) Appl Surf Sci, 252, pp. 4990-4994 Alencar, W.S., Crespilho, F.N., Martins, M.V.A., Zucolotto, V., Oliveira, O.N., Silva, W.C., Synergistic interaction between gold nanoparticles and nickel phthalocyanine in layer-bylayer (LbL) films: Evidence of constitutional dynamic chemistry (CDC) (2009) Phys Chem Chem Phys, 11, pp. 5086-5091 Pradhan, B., Bandyopadhyay, A., Pal, A.J., Molecular level control of donor/acceptor heterostructures in organic photovoltaic devices (2004) Appl Phys Lett, 85, pp. 663-665 Benten, H., Kudo, N., Ohkita, H., Ito, S., Layer-by-layer deposition films of copper phthalocyanine derivative their photoelectrochemical properties and application to solution-processed thin-film organic solar cells (2009) Thin Solid Films, 517, pp. 2016-2022 Forrest, S.R., Ultrathin organic films grown by organic molecular beam deposition and related techniques (1997) Chem Rev, 97, pp. 1793-1896 Shtein, M., Gossenberger, H.F., Benziger, J.B., Forrest, S.R., Material transport regimes and mechanisms for growth of molecular organic thin films using low-pressure organic vapor phase deposition (2001) J Appl Phys, 89, pp. 1470-1476 Ling, M.M., Bao, Z.N., Thin film deposition, patterning, and printing in organic thin film transistors (2004) Chem Mater, 16, pp. 4824-4840 Burrows, P.E., Forrest, S.R., Buma, T., Fenter, P., Sapochak, L.S., Schwartz, J., Ban, V.S., Forrest, J.L., Organic vapor phase deposition: A new method for the growth of organic thin films with large optical non-linearities (1995) J Cryst Growth, 156, pp. 91-98 Baldo, M., Deutsch, M., Burrows, P., Gossenberger, H., Gerstenberg, M., Ban, V., Forrest, S.R., Organic vapor phase deposition (1998) Adv Mater, 10, pp. 1505-1514 Shtein, M., Peumans, P., Benziger, J.B., Forrest, S.R., Micropatterning of small molecular weight organic semiconductor thin films using organic vapor phase deposition (2003) J Appl Phys, 93, pp. 4005-4016 Shtein, M., Mapel, J., Benziger, J.B., Forrest, S.R., Effects of film morphology and gate dielectric surface preparation on the electrical characteristics of organic-vapor-phasedeposited pentacene thin-film transistors (2002) Appl Phys Lett, 81, pp. 268-270 Rand, B.P., Genoe, J., Heremans, P., Poortmans, J., Solar cells utilizing small molecular weight organic semiconductors (2007) Prog Photovoltaics, 15, pp. 659-676 Meiss, J., Leo, K., Riede, M.K., Uhrich, C., Gnehr, W.-M., Sonntag, S., Pfeiffer, M., Efficient semitransparent small-molecule organic solar cells (2009) Appl Phys Lett, 95, p. 213306 Rusu, M., Wiesner, S., Mete, T., Blei, H., Meyer, N., Heuken, M., Lux-Steiner, M.C., Fostiropoulos, K., Organic donor, acceptor and buffer layers of small molecules prepared by OVPD technique for photovoltaics (2008) Renew Energy, 33, pp. 254-258 Peumans, P., Bulovic, V., Forrest, S.R., Efficient photon harvesting at high optical intensities in ultrathin organic double-heterostructure photovoltaic diodes (2000) Appl Phys Lett, 76, pp. 2650-2652 Vogel, M., Doka, S., Breyer, C., Lux-Steiner, M.C., Fostiropoulos, K., On the function of a bathocuproine buffer layer in organic photovoltaic cells (2006) Appl Phys Lett, 89, p. 163501 Breyer, C., Vogel, M., Mohr, M., Johnev, B., Fostiropoulos, K., Influence of exciton distribution on external quantum efficiency in bilayer organic solar cells (2006) Physica Status Solidi (b), 243, pp. 3176-3180 Peumans, P., Uchida, S., Forrest, S.R., Efficient bulk heterojunction photovoltaic cells using small-molecular weight organic thin films (2003) Nature, 425, pp. 158-162 Dittmer, J.J., Lazzaroni, R., Leclère, P., Moretti, P., Granström, M., Petritsch, K., Marseglia, E.A., Holmes, A.B., Crystal network formation in organic solar cells (2000) Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells, 61, pp. 53-61 Gebeyehu, D., Maennig, B., Drechsel, J., Leo, K., Pfeiffer, M., Bulk-heterojunction photovoltaic devices based on donor-acceptor organic small molecule blends (2003) Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells, 79, pp. 81-92 Pannemann, C., Dyakonov, V., Parisi, J., Hild, O., Wöhrle, D., Electrical characterization of zinc-phthalocyanine-fullerene photovoltaic cells (2001) Synth Metals, 121, p. 1585 Geens, W., Aernouts, T., Poortmans, J., Hadziioannou, G., Organic co-evaporated films of a PPV-pentamer and C-60: Model systems for donor/acceptor polymer blends (2002) Thin Solid Films, 403, pp. 438-443 Günes, S., Neugebauer, H., Sariciftci, N.S., Conjugated polymer-based organic solar cells (2007) Chem Rev, 107, pp. 1324-1338 Granström, M., Pertritsch, K., Arias, A.C., Lux, A., Andersson, M.R., Friend, R.H., Laminated fabrication of polymeric photovoltaic diodes (1998) Nature, 395, pp. 257-260 Yu, G., Gao, J., Hummelen, J.C., Wudl, F., Heeger, A.J., Polymer photovoltaic cells: Enhanced efficiencies via a network of internal donor-acceptor heterojunctions (1995) Science, 270, pp. 1789-1791 Hiramoto, M., Yamaga, T., Danno, M., Suemori, K., Matsumura, Y., Yokoyama, M., Design of nanostructures for photoelectric conversion using an organic vertical superlattice (2006) Appl Phys Lett, 88, p. 213105 Liang, Y., Xu, Z., Xia, J., Tsai, S.T., Wu, Y., Li, G., Ray, C., Yu, L., For the bright future-bulk heterojunction polymer solar cells with power conversion efficiency of 7.4% (2010) Adv Mater, 22, pp. 1-4 Feng, W., Fujii, A., Lee, S., Wu, H., Yoshino, K., Broad spectral sensitization of organic photovoltaic heterojunction device by perylene and C60 (2000) J Appl Phys, 88, pp. 7120-7123 Tsuzuki, T., Shirota, Y., Rostalski, J., Meissner, D., The effect of fullerene doping on photoelectric conversion using titanyl phthalocyanine and a perylene pigment (2000) Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells, 61, pp. 1-8 Hiramoto, M., Suemori, K., Yokoyama, M., Photovoltaic properties of ultramicrostructure controlled organic co-deposited films (2002) Jpn J Appl Phys, 41, pp. 2763-2766 Halls, J.J.M., Friend, R.H., The photovoltaic effect in a poly(p-phenylenevinylene)/perylene heterojunction (1997) Synth Metals, 85, pp. 1307-1308 Rand, B.P., Xue, J., Uchida, S., Forrest, S.R., Mixed donor acceptor molecular heterojunctions for photovoltaic applications. I. Material properties (2005) J Appl Phys, 98, p. 124902 Uchida, S., Xue, J., Rand, B.P., Forrest, S.R., Organic small molecule solar cells with a homogeneously mixed copper phthalocyanine: C60 active layer (2004) Appl Phys Lett, 84, pp. 4218-4220 Heutz, S., Sullivan, P., Sanderson, B.M., Schultes, S.M., Jones, T.S., Influence of molecular architecture and intermixing on the photovoltaic, morphological and spectroscopic properties of CuPc-C60 heterojunctions (2004) Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells, 83, pp. 229-245 Sullivan, P., Heutz, S., Schultes, S.M., Jones, T.S., Influence of codeposition on the performance of CuPc-C-60 heterojunction photovoltaic devices (2004) Appl Phys Lett, 84, pp. 1210-1212 Xue, J., Rand, B.P., Uchida, S., Forrest, S.R., Mixed donor acceptor molecular heterojunctions for photovoltaic applications. II. Device performance (2005) J Appl Phys, 98, p. 124903 Opitz, A., Bronner, M., Bruetting, W., Ambipolar charge carrier transport in mixed organic layers of phthalocyanine and fullerene (2007) J Appl Phys, 101, p. 063709 Mihailetchi, V.D., Koster, L.J.A., Blom, P.W.M., Melzer, C., de Boer, B., Compositional dependence of the performance of poly(p-phenylene vinylene): Methanofullerene bulkheterojunction solar cells (2005) Adv Funct Mater, 15, pp. 795-801 Yang, F., Shtein, M., Forrest, S.R., Controlled growth of a molecular bulk heterojunction photovoltaic cell (2005) Nat Mater, 4, pp. 37-41