This article is a review about the effects of each of the processing stages of pasteurized apple juice on the increase, prevalence or reduction of patulin (PAT) levels in the final product. Recommendations are included for the control and reduction of the incidence of the moulds that produce it and the mycotoxin itself, from the pre-harvest to the final manufacturing stages of apple juice, studies required for a better understanding of the behaviour of this mycotoxin during processing also being indicated. Although the initial stages of the juice manufacturing process (washing, selection and trimming) are highly efficient in reducing the levels of PAT, control of the mycotoxin should always be focused on the production stages of the process that guarantee the inhibition of its production (pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest). © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.415441453Acar, J., Gökmen, V., Taydas, E.E., The effects of processing technology on the patulin content of juice during commercial apple juice concentrate production (1998) Zeitschrift fur Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und -Forschung A (European Food Research and Technology), 207, pp. 328-331Arafat, W., Musa, M.N., Patulin-induced inhibition of protein synthesis in hepatoma tissue culture (1995) Research Communications in Molecular Pathology & Pharmacology, 87, pp. 177-186Aytac, S.A., Acar, J., Einflub von l-ascorbinsäure und schwefeldioxidzusatz auf die stabilität von patulin in apfeläften und pufferlösungen (1994) Ernährung, 1, pp. 15-17Baert, K., Meulenaer, B., Kamala, A., Kasase, C., Devlieghere, F., Occurrence of patulin in organic, conventional, and handcrafted apple juices marketed in Belgium (2006) Journal of Food Protection, 69, pp. 1371-1378Baert, K., Meulenaer, B., Kamala, A., Kasase, C., Huyghebaert, A., Ooghe, W., Free and bound patulin in cloudy apple juice (2007) Food Chemistry, 100, pp. 1278-1282Beretta, B., Gaiaschi, A., Galli, C.L., Restani, P., Patulin in apple-based foods: Occurrence and safety evaluation (2000) Food Additives and Contaminants, 17, pp. 399-406Bissessur, J., Permaul, K., Odhav, B., Reduction of patulin during apple juice clarification (2001) Journal of Food Protection, 64, pp. 1216-1219Boneti, J. I. S., & Katsurayama, Y. (1998). Doenças da macieira. Estação Experimental de São Joaquim (Epagri) (pp. 1-85). São Paulo: BasfBoonzaaijer, G., Bobeldijk, I., van Osenbruggen, W.A., Analysis of patulin in Dutch food, an evaluation of a SPE based method (2005) Food Control, 16, pp. 587-591Brackett, R.E., Marth, E.H., Patulin in apple juice from roadside stands in Wisconsin (1979) Journal of Food Protection, 42, pp. 862-863Brackett, R.E., Marth, E.H., Ascorbic acid and ascorbate cause disappearance of patulin from buffer solutions and apple juice (1979) Journal of Food Protection, 42, pp. 864-866Brasil (1988). Resolução n°4, de 24 de novembro de 1988. Aprova a revisão das Tabelas I, III, IV e V referente a Aditivos Intencionais. Diário Oficial da União, 19 de novembro de 1988Bullerman, L.B., Olivigni, F.J., Mycotoxin producing potential of molds isolated from cheddar cheese (1974) Journal of Food Science, 39, pp. 1166-1168Burda, K., Incidence of patulin in apple, pear, and mixed fruit products marketed in New South Wales (1992) Journal of Food Protection, 55, pp. 796-798Burroughs, L.F., Stability of patulin to sulfur dioxide and to yeast fermentation (1977) Journal of AOAC International, 60, pp. 100-103Calvo, J., Calvente, V., Orellano, M.E., Benuzzi, D., Tosetti, M.I.S., Biological control of postharvest spoilage caused by Penicillium expansum and Botrytis cinerea in apple by using the bacterium Rahnella aquatilis (2007) International Journal of Food Microbiology, 113, pp. 251-257Canãs, P., Aranda, M., Decontamination and inhibition of patulin-induced cytotoxicity (1996) Environmental Toxicological and Water Quality, 11, pp. 249-253CDC (1996). Outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections associated with drinking unpasteurized commercial apple juice - British Columbia, California, Colorado and Washington. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 45(October), 975CDC (1997). Outbreaks of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections and cryptosporidiosis associated with drinking unpasteurized apple cider - Connecticut and New York, 1996. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 46(October), 4-8Cerny, Y.G., Hennlich, W., Poralla, K., Spoilage of fruit juice by bacilli: Isolation and characterization of the spoiling microorganism (1984) Zeitschrift fur Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und -Forschung (European Food Research and Technology), 179, pp. 224-227Chen, L., Ingham, B.H., Ingham, S.C., Survival of Penicillium expansum and patulin production on stored apples after wash treatments (2004) Journal of Food Science, 69, pp. 669-675Cheraghali, A.M., Mohammadi, H.R., Amirahmadi, M., Yazdanpanah, H., Abouhossain, G., Zamanian, F., Incidence of patulin contamination in apple juice produced in Iran (2005) Food Control, 16, pp. 165-167CODEX - Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants (2003a). Maximum level for patulin in apple juice and apple juice ingredients and other beverages. Codex Stan, 235, 1CODEX - Codex Alimentarius Commission (2003b). Code of practice for the prevention and reduction of patulin contamination in apple juice and apple juice ingredients in other beverages. CAC/RCP, 50, 1-6CODEX - Codex Alimentarius Commission (2005). Codex general standard for fruit juices and nectars. Codex Stan, 247, 1-15Conway, W.S., Janisiewicz, W.J., Klein, J.D., Sams, C.E., Strategy for combining heat treatment, calcium infiltration, and biological control to reduce postharvest decay of "Gala" apples (1999) HortScience, 34, pp. 700-704Cooray, R., Kiessling, K.H., Lindahl-Kiessling, K., The effects of patulin and patulin-cysteine mixtures on DNA synthesis and the frequency of sister-chromatid exchanges in human lymphocytes (1982) Food and Chemical Toxicology, 20, pp. 893-898Draughon, F.A., Ayres, J.C., Insecticide inhibition of growth and patulin production in Penicillium expansum, Penicillium urticae, Aspergillus clavatus, Aspergillus terreus, and Byssochlamys nivea (1980) Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 28, pp. 1115-1117Drusch, S., Kopka, S., Kaeding, J., Stability of patulin in a juice-like aqueous model system in the presence of ascorbic acid (2007) Food Chemistry, 100, pp. 192-197Errampali, D., Effect of fluidioxinil on germination and growth of Penicillium expansum and decay in apple cvs. Empire and Gala (2004) Crop Protection, 23, pp. 811-817Errampali, D., Northover, J., Skog, L., Brubacher, N.R., Colluci, C.A., Control of the blue mold(Penicillium expansum) by fludioxinil in apples (cv Empire) under controlled atmosphere and cold storage conditions (2005) Pest Management Science, 61, pp. 591-596Escoula, L., Moore, J., Baradat, C., The toxins of Byssochlamys nivea Part I. Acute toxicity of patulin in adult rats and mice (1977) Annals de Recherche Vétérinaire, 8, pp. 41-49EUROPEAN UNION (2003). Commission Regulation no. 1425/2003 amending Commission Regulation no. 466/2001 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs, Brussels, Belgium. Official Journal of the European Communities, L203, 1-3FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2003). Manual on the application of the HACCP system in mycotoxin prevention and control. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper, 73, 1-124Faragher, J., Storage conditions affecting the life of fruit (2000) Agriculture Notes, (June), pp. 1-3FDA - United States Food and Drug Administration (2000). Patulin in apple juice, apple juice concentrates and apple juice products. <www.cfsan.fda.gov/∼dms/patubckg.html>Gentry, T.S., Roberts, J.S., Formation kinetics and application of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural as a time-temperature indicator of lethality for continuous pasteurization of apple cider (2004) Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 5, pp. 327-333Girardi, C., & Bender, R. J. (2003). Produção Integrada de Maçãs no Brasil. Colheita e Pós-colheita. Embrapa Uva e Vinho. <http://sistemasdeproducao.cnptia.embrapa.br/FontesHTML/Maca/ProducaoIntegradaMaca/colheita.htm>Gökmen, V., Acar, J., Incidence of patulin in apple juice concentrates produced in Turkey (1998) Journal of Chromatography A, 815, pp. 99-102Gökmen, V., Acar, J., Long-term survey of patulin in apple juice concentrates produced in Turkey (2000) Food Additives and Contaminants, 17, pp. 933-936Gökmen, V., Artik, N., Acar, J., Kaharaman, N., Poyrazoglu, E., Effects of various clarification treatments on patulin, phenolic compound and organic acid compositions of apple juice (2001) European Food Research Technology, 213, pp. 194-199Harrison, M.A., Presence and stability of patulin in apple products: A review (1989) Journal of Food Safety, 9, pp. 147-153Hasan, H.A.H., Patulin and aflatoxin in brown rot lesion of apple fruits and their regulation (2000) World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology, 16, pp. 607-612Hayes, A.W., Phillips, T.D., Williams, W.L., Ciegler, A., Acute toxicity of patulin in mice and rats (1979) Toxicology, 13, pp. 91-100Heatley, N.E., Philpot, F.J., The routine examination for antibiotics produced by moulds (1947) Journal of General Microbiology, 1, pp. 232-237Hopkins, J., The toxicological hazards of patulin (1993) Food and Chemical Toxicology, 31, pp. 455-456Huebner, H.J., Mayura, K., Pallaroni, L., Ake, C.L., Lemke, S.L., Herrera, P., Development and characterization of a carbon-based composite material for reducing patulin levels in apple juice (2000) Journal of Food Protection, 63, pp. 106-110Iha, M.H., Sabino, M., Incidence of patulin in Brazilian apple-based drinks (2008) Food Control, 19, pp. 417-422Jackson, L.S., Beacham-Bowden, T., Keller, S.E., Adhikari, C., Taylor, K.T., Chirtel, S.J., Apple quality, storage, and washing treatments affect patulin levels in apple cider (2003) Journal of Food Protection, 66, pp. 618-624Kadakal, C., Nas, S., Effect of activated charcoal on patulin, fumaric acid, and some other properties of apple juice (2002) Nahrung/Food, 46, pp. 31-33Kadakal, C., Nas, S., Effect of apple decay proportion on the patulin, fumaric acid, HMF and other apple juice properties (2002) Journal of Food Safety, 22, pp. 17-25Kadakal, C., Nas, S., Effect of heat treatment and evaporation on patulin and some other properties of apple juice (2003) Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 83, pp. 987-990Kadakal, C., Sebahattin, N., Poyrazoglu, E.S., Effect of commercial processing stages of apple juice on patulin, fumaric acid and hydroxymetilfurfural (HMF) levels (2002) Journal of Food Quality, 25, pp. 359-368Karow, E.O., Foster, J.W., An antibiotic substance from species of Gymnoascus and Penicillium (1944) Science, 99, pp. 265-266King, A.D., Michener, H.D., Ito, K.A., Control of Byssochlamys and related heat-resistant fungi in grape products (1969) Applied Microbiology, 18, pp. 166-173Koca, N., Eksi, A., Reduction of patulin in apple juice concentrates during storage (2005) Journal of Food Safety, 25, pp. 1-8Kryger, R.A., Volatility of patulin in apple juice (2001) Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 49, pp. 4141-4143Kubacki, S.J., The analysis and occurrence of patulin in apple juice (1986) Mycotoxins and phycotoxins, pp. 293-304. , Steyn P.S., and Vieggaar R. (Eds), Elsevier, AmsterdamKupferman, E., Controlled atmosphere storage of apples and pears (2001) Postharvest Information Network, (December), pp. 1-8Laidou, I.A., Thanassoulopoulos, C.C., Liakopoulou-Kyriakides, M., Diffusion of patulin in the flesh of pears inoculated with four post-harvest pathogens (2001) Journal of Phytopathology, 149, pp. 457-461Lea, A.G.H., Apple juice (1990) Production and packaging of non-carbonated fruit juices and fruit beverages, pp. 182-225. , Hicks D. (Ed), Blackie and Son, GlasgowLeblanc, J.C., Tard, A., Volatier, J.L., Verger, P., Estimated dietary exposure to principal food mycotoxins from The First French Total Dietary study (2005) Food Additives and Contaminants, 22, pp. 652-672Leggott, N.L., Shephard, G.S., Patulin in South African commercial apple products (2001) Food Control, 12, pp. 73-76Leggott, N.L., Sheppard, G.S., Stockenström, S., Staal, E., van Schalkwyk, D.J., The reduction of patulin in apple juice by three different types of activated carbon (2001) Food Additives and Contaminants, 18, pp. 825-829Leggott, N.L., Vismer, H.F., Sydenham, E.W., Shephard, G.S., Rheeder, J.P., Marasas, W.F.O., Occurrence of patulin in the commercial processing of apple juice (2000) South African Journal of Science, 96, pp. 241-243Lennox, J.E., McElroy, L.J., Inhibition of growth and patulin synthesis in Penicillium expansum by potassium sorbate and sodium propionate in culture (1984) Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 48, pp. 1031-1033Lindroth, S., Niskanen, A., Comparison of potential patulin hazard in home-made and commercial apple products (1978) Journal of Food Science, 43Little, C. R., & Holmes, R. J. (2000). Postharvest pathology of apples and pears. In J. Faragher (Ed.), Storage technology for apples and pears (pp. 154-197). Victoria: Department of Natural Resources and EnvironmentLovett, J., Peeler, J.T., Effect of pH on the thermal destruction kinetics of patulin in aqueous solution (1973) Journal of Food Science, 38, pp. 1094-1095Lovett, J., Thompson, R.G., Boutin, B.K., Patulin production in apples stored in a controlled atmosphere (1975) Journal of AOAC, 58, pp. 912-914Mahfoud, R., Maresca, M., Garmy, N., Fantini, J., The mycotoxin patulin alters the barrier function of the intestinal epithelium: Mechanism of action of the toxin and protective effects of glutathione (2002) Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 181, pp. 209-218Manchisky, M., Mídio, A.F., Incidencia de patulina en jugo de manzana industrializado (1996) Alimentaria, 276, pp. 61-64Marin, S., Morales, H., Hasan, H.A., Ramos, A.J., Sanchis, V., Patulin distribution in Fuji and Golden apples contaminated with Penicillium expansum (2006) Food Additives and Contaminants, 23, pp. 1316-1322Martins, M.L., Gimeno, A., Martins, H.M., Bernardo, F., Co-occurrence of patulin and citrinin in Portuguese apples with rotten spots (2002) Food Additives and Contaminants, 19, pp. 568-574Miller, C. J., & Lyndon, R. M. (2001). Process for reducing the patulin concentration in fruit juices. United States Patent No. 6,248,382 B1, June 19, pp. 1-13Moake, M.M., Padilla-Zakour, O.I., Worobo, R.W., Comprehensive review of patulin control methods in foods (2005) Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 1, pp. 8-21Moodley, R.S., Goviden, R., Odhav, B., The effect of modified atmospheres and packaging on patulin production in apples (2002) Journal of Food Protection, 65, pp. 867-871Morales, H., Marin, S., Rovira, A., Ramos, A.J., Sanchis, V., Patulin accumulation in apples by Penicillium expansum during postharvest stages (2007) Letters in Applied Microbiology, 44, pp. 30-35Morales, H., Marín, S., Centelles, X., Ramos, A.J., Sanchis, V., Cold and ambient deck storage prior to processing as a critical control point for patulin accumulation (2007) International Journal of Food Microbiology, 116, pp. 260-265Morales, H., Sanchis, V., Rovira, A., Ramos, A.J., Marin, S., Patulin accumulation in apples during postharvest: Effect of controlled atmosphere storage and fungicide treatments (2007) Food Control, 18, pp. 1443-1448Moule, Y., Hatey, F., Mechanism of the in vitro inhibition of transcription by patulin, a mycotoxin from Byssochlamys nivea (1977) FEBS Letters, 74, pp. 121-125Mutlu, M., Gökmen, V., Determination of effective mass transfer coefficient (Kc) of patulin adsorption on activated carbon packed bed columns with recycling (1998) Journal of Food Engineering, 35, pp. 259-266Neri, F., Mari, M., Menniti, A.M., Brigati, S., Bertolini, P., Control of Penicillium expansum in pears and apples by trans-2-hexenal vapours (2006) Postharvest Biology and Technology, 41, pp. 101-108Okull, D.O., Laborde, L.F., Activity of electrolyzed oxidizing water against Penicillium expansum in suspension and wounded apples (2004) Journal of Food Science, 69, pp. S23-S27Ough, C.S., Corison, C.A., Measurement of patulin in grapes and wines (1980) Journal of Food Science, 45, pp. 476-478Paster, N., Huppert, D., Barkai-Golan, R., Production of patulin by different strains of Penicillium expansum in pear and apple cultivars stored at different temperatures and modified atmospheres (1995) Food Additives and Contaminants, 12, pp. 51-58Pfeiffer, E., Groß, K., Metzler, M., Aneuploidogenic and clastogenic potential of the mycotoxins citrinin and patulin (1998) Carcinogenesis, 19, pp. 1313-1318Piemontese, L., Solfrizzo, M., Visconti, A., Occurrence of patulin in conventional and organic fruit products in Italy and subsequent exposure assessment (2005) Food Additives and Contaminants, 22, pp. 437-442Pohland, A.E., Allen, R., Stability studies with patulin (1970) Journal of AOAC International, 53, pp. 688-691Prado, G., Oliveira, M.S., Cunha, M.R., Gomides, M.F., Abrantes, F.M., Santos, L.G., Occurrence of patulin in apple juice marketed in Brasil by high-performance liquid chromatography (2000) Revista do Instituto Adolfo Lutz, 59, pp. 21-25Prieta, J., Moreno, M.A., Díaz, S., Suárez, G., Dominguez, L., La patulina como indicador de calidad em productos elaborados com manzana (1994) Alimentaria, 254, pp. 75-80Ritieni, A., Patulin in Italian commercial apple products (2003) Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, pp. 6086-6090Roland, J.O., Beuchat, L.R., Biomass and patulin production by Byssochlamys nivea in apple juice as affected by sorbate, benzoate, SO2 and temperature (1984) Journal of Food Science, 49, pp. 402-406Roland, J.O., Beuchat, L.R., Worthington, R.E., Hitchcock, H.L., Effects of sorbate, benzoate, sulfur dioxide and temperature on growth and patulin production by Byssochlamys nivea in grape juice (1984) Journal of Food Protection, 47, pp. 237-241Roll, R., Matthiaschk, G., Korte, A., Embryotoxicity and mutagenicity of mycotoxins (1990) Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology and Oncology, 10, pp. 1-7Root, W.H., Barret, D.M., Apples and apple processing (2005) Processing fruits: Science and technology, pp. 455-480. , Barret D.M., Somogyi L., and Ramaswamy H. (Eds), CRC Press, Boca RatonRutledge, P., Production of non-fermented fruit products (1996) Fruit processing, pp. 70-94. , Arthey D., and Ashurst P.R. (Eds), Chapman & Hall, CambridgeRychlik, M., Schieberle, P., Model studies on the diffusion behavior of the mycotoxin patulin in apples, tomatoes, and wheat bread (2001) European Food Research Technology, 212, pp. 274-278Sanderson, P.G., Spotts, R.A., Postharvest decay of winter pear and apple fruit caused by species of Penicillium (1995) Phytopathology, 85, pp. 103-110Sands, D.C., McIntyre, J.L., Walton, G.S., Use of activated charcoal for the removal of patulin from cider (1976) Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 32, pp. 388-391Sanhueza, R.M.V., Recomendações para o controle pós-colheita das podridões de maçãs (1996) Embrapa. Comunicado Técnico, 21, pp. 1-4Scott, P.M., Somers, E., Stability of patulin and penicillic acid in fruit juices and flour (1968) Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 16, pp. 483-485Spadaro, D., Ciavorella, A., Frati, S., Garibaldi, A., Gullino, M.L., Incidence and level of patulin contamination in pure and mixed apple juices marketed in Italy (2007) Food Control, 18, pp. 1098-1102Spotts, R., Cervantes, L.A., Population, pathogenicity and benomyl resistance of Botrytis spp., Penicillium spp. and Mucor piriformis in packinghouses (1986) Plant Diseases, 70, pp. 106-108Stott, W.T., Bullerman, L.B., Patulin: A mycotoxin of potential concern in foods (1975) Journal of Food Protection, 38, pp. 695-705Swindeman, A.M., Fruit packing and storage loss prevention guidelines (2002) Postharvest Information Network, (December), pp. 1-9Sydenham, E.W., Vismer, H.F., Marasas, W.F.O., Brown, N., Schlechter, M., van der Westhuizen, L., Reduction of patulin in apple juice samples - influence of initial processing (1995) Food Control, 6, pp. 195-200Sydenham, E.W., Vismer, H.F., Marasas, W.F.O., Brown, N.L., Schlechter, M., Rheeder, J.P., The influence of deck storage and initial processing on patulin levels in apple juice (1997) Food Additives and Contaminants, 14, pp. 429-434Sylos, C.M., Rodriguez-Amaya, D.B., Incidence of patulin in fruits and fruits juices marketed in Campinas, Brazil (1999) Food Additives and Contaminants, 16, pp. 71-74Tangni, E.K., Theys, R., Mignolet, E., Maudoux, M., Michelet, J.Y., Larondelle, Y., Patulin in domestic and imported apple-based drinks in Belgium: Occurrence and exposure assessment (2003) Food Additives and Contaminants, 20, pp. 482-489Taniwaki, M.H., Bleinroth, E.W., De Martin, Z.J., Bolores produtores de patulina em maçã e suco industrializado (1989) Coletânea do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos, 19, pp. 42-49Taniwaki, M.H., Hoenderboom, C.J.M., Vitali, A.A., Eiroa, M.N.U., Migration of patulin in apples (1992) Journal of Food Protection, 55, pp. 902-904Watanabe, M., Shimizu, H., Detection of patulin in apple juices marketed in the Tohoku District, Japan (2005) Journal of Food Protection, 68, pp. 610-612Watkins C. B., Kupferman, E., & Rosenberger, D. A. (2002). Apple. Postharvest quality maintenance guidelines. In K. C. Gross, C. Y. Wang, & M. Saltveit (Eds.), The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables, and florist and nursery crops. <http://usna.usda.gov/hb66/027apple.pdf>Watkins, K.L., Fazekas, G., Palmer, M.V., Patulin in Australian apple juice (1990) Food Australia, 42, pp. 438-439Wheeler, J.L., Harrison, M.A., Koehler, P.E., Presence and stability of patulin in pasteurized apple cider (1987) Journal of Food Science, 52, pp. 479-480Wichmann, G., Herbarth, O., Lehmann, I., The mycotoxins citrinin, gliotoxin, and patulin affect interferon-g rather than interleukin-4 production in human blood cells (2002) Environmental Toxicology, 17, pp. 211-218Wiesner, B.P., Bactericidal effects of Aspergillus clavatus (1942) Nature, 149, pp. 356-357Wosiacki, G., & Nogueira, A. (2005). Suco de Maçã. In W. G. Venturini Filho (Ed.), Tecnologia de bebidas (pp. 255-292). São Paulo: Edgard BlücherYazici, S., Velioglu, S., Effect of thiamine hydrochloride, pyridoxine hydrochloride and calcium-d-pantothenate on the patulin content of apple juice concentrate (2002) Nahrung/Food, 46, pp. 256-257Yurdun, T., Omurtag, G.Z., Ersoy, O., Incidence of patulin in apples juices marketed in Turkey (2001) Journal of Food Protection, 64, pp. 1851-1853