Physical exercise promotes beneficial health effects by preventing or reducing the deleterious effects of pathological conditions, such as arterial hypertension, coronary artery disease, atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer disease. Human movement studies are becoming an emerging science in the epidemiological area and public health. A great number of studies have shown that exercise training, in general, reduces sympathetic activity and/or increases parasympathetic tonus either in human or laboratory animals. Alterations in autonomic nervous system have been correlated with reduction in heart rate (resting bradycardia) and blood pressure, either in normotensive or hypertensive subjects. However, the underlying mechanisms by which physical exercise produce bradycardia and reduces blood pressure has not been fully understood. Pharmacological studies have particularly contributed to the comprehension of the role of receptor and transduction signaling pathways on the heart and blood vessels in response to exercise training. This review summarizes and examines the data from studies using animal models and human to determine the effect of exercise training on the cardiovascular system. © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.1143307317ACSM Position stand on the recommended quantaty and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, and flexibility in adults (1998) Med Sci Sports Exerc, 30, pp. 975-991Ahlquist, R.P., A study of adrenergic receptors (1948) Am J Physiol, 153, pp. 586-600Andersson, K.E., Pharmacology of penile erection (2001) Pharmacol Rev, 53, pp. 417-450Aranda, P., Ruilope, L.M., Calvo, C., Luque, M., Coca, A., De Miguel, A.G., Erectile dysfunction in essential arterial hypertension and effects of sildenafil: results of a Spanish national study (2004) Am J Hypert, 17, pp. 139-145Astrand, P.O., Quantification of exercise capability and evaluation of capacaty in man (1976) Prog Cardiovasc Dis, 19, pp. 51-67Banfi, G., Malavazos, A., Iorio, E., Dolci, A., Doneda, L., Verna, R., Plasma oxidative stress biomarkers, nitric oxide and heat shock protein 70 in trained elite soccer players (2006) Eur J Appl Physiol, 96, pp. 483-486Berne, R.M., Cardiac nucleotide in hypoxia: possible role in regulation of coronary blood flow (1963) Am J Physiol, 204, pp. 317-322Birnbaumer, L., G proteins in signal transduction (1990) Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol, 30, pp. 675-705Bode-Boger, S.M., Boger, R.M., Schroder, E.P., Frolich, J.C., Exercise increases systemic nitric oxide production in men (1994) J Cardiovasc Risk, 1, pp. 173-178Bonaduce, D., Petretta, M., Cavallaro, V., Apicella, C., Ianniciello, A., Romano, M., Intensive training and cardiac autonomic control in high levl athletes (1998) Med Sci Sports Exerc, 30, pp. 691-696Boo, Y.C., Jo, H., Flow-dependent regulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase: role of protein kinases (2003) Am J Physiol Cell Physiol, 285, pp. C499-C508Brodde, O.-E., Cardiac beta-adrenergic receptors (1987) ISI Atlas Sci Pharmacol, 1, pp. 107-112Carroll, J.F., Isolated heart responsiveness to β-stimulation after exercise training in obesity (2003) Med Sci Sports Exerc, 35, pp. 548-554Caulfield, M.P., Muscarinic receptors: characterization, coupling and function (1993) Pharmacol Ther, 58, pp. 319-379Chang, S.P., Chen, Y.H., Chang, W.C., Liu, I.M., Cheng, J.T., Increase of anti-oxidant by exercise in the liver of obese Zucher rats (2004) Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol, 31, pp. 506-511Chen, H.I., Chiang, I.P., Jen, C.J., Exercise training increases acetylcholine-stimulated endothelium-derived nitric oxide release in spontaneously hypertensive rats (1996) J Biomed Sci, 3, pp. 454-460Chen, Y., Collins, H.L., DiCarlo, S.E., Daily exercise enhances acetylcholine-induced dilation in mesenteric and hindlimb vasculature of hypertensive rats (1999) Clin Exp Hypertens, 21, pp. 353-376Chies, A.B., Oliveira, A.M., Pereira, F.C., Andrade, C.R., Correa, F.M.A., Phenyleprine-induced vasoconstriction of the rat superior mesenteric artery is decreased after repeated swimming (2004) J Smooth Muscle Res, 40, pp. 249-258Choate, J.K., Kato, K., Mohan, R.M., Exercise training enhances relaxation of the isolated guinea-pig saphenous artery in response to acetylcholine (2000) Exp Physiol, 85, pp. 103-108Claudino, M.A., Priviero, F.B.M., Teixeira, C.E., De Nucci, G., Antunes, E., Zanesco, A., Improvement in relaxation response in corpus cavernosum from trained rats (2004) Urology, 63 (5), pp. 1004-1008Claudino, M.A., Priviero, F.B., Camargo, E.A., Teixeira, C.E., De Nucci, G., Antunes, E., Protective effect of prior physical conditioning on relaxing response of corpus cavernosum from rats made hypertensive by nitric oxide inhibition (2006) Int J Impot Res, 17Collins, H.L., DiCarlo, S.E., Daily exercise attenuates the sympathetic component of the arterial baroreflex control of heart rate (1997) Am J Physiol, 6, pp. H2613-H2619Collins, M.G., Hourani, S.M., Adenosine receptor subtypes (1993) Trends Pharmacol Sci, 14, pp. 360-366Cross, H.R., Murphy, E., Black, R.G., Auchampach, J., Steenbergen, C., Overexpression of A3 adenosine receptors decreases heart rate, preserves energetics, and protects ischemic hearts (2002) Am J Physiol, 283, pp. H1562-H1568Davis, M.E., Cai, H., Drummond, G.R., Harrison, D.G., Shear stress regulates endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression through c-Src by divergent signaling pathways (2001) Circ Res, 89, pp. 1073-1080Davis, M.E., Cai, H., McCann, L., Fukai, T., Harrison, D.G., Role of c-Src in regulationof endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression during exercise training (2003) Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 284, pp. H1449-H1453Delp, M.D., Laughlin, M.H., Time course of enhanced endothelium-mediated dilation in aorta of trained rats (1997) Med Sci Sports Exerc, 29, pp. 1454-1461Dimmler, S., Fleming, I., Fisslthalter, B., Hermann, C., Busse, R., Zeiher, A.M., Activation of nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells by Akt-dependent phosphorylation (1999) Nature, 399, pp. 601-605Dorje, F., Wess, J., Lambrecht, G., Tacke, R., Mutschler, E., Brann, M.R., Antagonist binding profiles of five cloned human muscarinic receptor subtypes (1991) J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 256, pp. 727-733Droge, W., Free radicals in the physiological control of cell function (2002) Physiol Rev, 82, pp. 47-95Edwards, J.G., Tipton, C.M., Matthes, R.D., Influence of exercise training on reactivity and contractility of arterial strips from hypertensive rats (1985) J Appl Physiol, 58, pp. 1683-1688Emorine, L., Marullo, S., Briend-Sutren, M.M., Patey, G., Tate, K., Delavier-Klutchko, C., Molecular characterization of the human β3-adrenergic receptor (1989) Science, 245, pp. 1118-1121Fagard, R.H., Exercise characteristics and the blood pressure response to dynamic physical training (2001) Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33, pp. 1229-1233Favret, F., Henderson, K.K., Clancy, R.L., Richalet, J.P., Gonzalez, N.C., Exercise training alters the effect of chronic hypoxia on myocardial adrenergic and muscarinic receptor number (2001) J Appl Physiol, 91, pp. 1283-1288Feldman, R.D., β-Adrenergic receptor alteration in hypertension: physiological and molecular correlates (1987) Can J Physiol Pharmacol, 65, pp. 1666-1672Ford, A.P.D.W., Williams, T.J., Blue, D.R., Clarke, D.E., α1-adrenoceptor classification: sharpening occam's razor (1994) Trends Pharmacol Sci, 15, pp. 167-170Frick, M.H., Elovainio, R.O., Somer, T., The mechanism of bradycardia evoked by physical training (1967) Cardiologia, 51, pp. 46-54Fukai, T., Siegfried, M.R., Ushio-Fukai, M., Cheng, Y., Kojda, G., Harrison, D.G., Regulation of the vascular extracellular superoxide dismutase by nitric oxide and exercise training (2000) J Clin Invest, 105, pp. 1631-1639Furchgott, R.F., Zawadzki, J.V., The obligatory role of endothelial cells in the relaxation of arterial smooth muscle by acetylcholine (1980) Nature, 288, pp. 373-376Geenen, D., Buttrick, P., Scheuer, J., Cardiovascular and hormonal responses to swimming and running in the rat (1988) J Appl Physiol, 65, pp. 116-123Gibson, A., Phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors and nitrergic transmission- from zaprinast to sildenafil (2001) Eur J Pharmacol, 411, pp. 1-10Gocmen, C., Secilmis, A., Ucar, P., KAratas, Y., Onder, S., Dikmen, A., A possible role of S-nitrosothiols at the nitrergic relaxations in the mouse corpus cavernosum (1998) Eur J Pharmacol, 361 (1), pp. 85-92Grahan, D.A., Rush, J.W., Exercise training improves aortic endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation and determinants of nitric oxide bioavailability in spontaneously hypertensive rats (2004) J Appl Physiol, 96, pp. 2088-2096Grassi, G., Seravalle, G., Calhoun, D.A., Mancia, G., Physical traning and baroreceptor control of sympathetic nerve activity in humans (1994) Hypertension, 23, pp. 294-301Hedlund, P., Larsson, B., Alm, P., Andersson, K.E., Distribution and function of nitric oxide-containing nerves in canine corpus cavernosum and spongiosum (1995) Acta Physiol Scand, 155, pp. 445-455Hedlund, P., Alm, P., Andersson, K.E., NO synthase in cholinergic nerves and NO-induced relaxation in the rat isolated corpus cavernosum (1999) Br J Pharmacol, 127, pp. 349-360Henderson, K.K., Turk, J.R., Rush, J.W.E., Laughlin, M.H., Endothelial function in coronary arterioles from pigs with early-stage coronary disease induced by high-fat, high-cholesterol diet: effect of exercise (2004) J Appl Physiol, 97, pp. 1159-1168Higashi, Y., Yoshizumi, M., Exercise and endothelial function: role of endothelium-derived nitric oxide and oxidative stress in healthy subjects and hypertensive patients (2004) Pharmacol Ther, 102, pp. 87-96Holmquist, F., Stief, C.G., Jonas, U., Andersson, K.E., Effects of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor NG-nitro-L-arginine on the erectile response to cavernous nerve stimulation in the rabbit (1991) Acta Physiol Scand, 143, pp. 299-304Hughson, R.L., Sutton, J.R., Fitzgerald, J.D., Jones, N.L., Reduction of intrinsic sinoatrial frequency and norepinephrine response of the exercised rat (1977) Can J Physiol Pharmacol, 55, pp. 813-820Ignarro, L.J., Buga, G.M., Wood, K.S.M., Byrn, R.E., Chaudhuri, G., Endothelium-derived relaxing factor produced and released from artery and vein is nitric oxide (1987) Proc Natl Acad Sci, 84, pp. 9265-9269Ignarro, L.J., Bush, P.A., Buga, G.M., Wood, K.S., Fukuto, J.M., Rajfer, J., Nitric oxide and cyclic GMP formation upon electrical field stimulation cause relaxation of corpus cavernosum smooth muscle (1990) Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 170, pp. 843-850Jansakul, C., Effects of swimming on vascular reactivity to phenylephrine and KCL in male rats (1995) Br J Pharmacol, 115, pp. 587-594Jansakul, C., Hirupan, P., Effects of exercise training on responsiveness of the mesenteric arterial bed to phenylephrine and KCL in male rats (1999) Br J Pharmacol, 127, pp. 1559-1566Jasperse, J.L., Laughlin, M.H., Vasomotor responses of soleus feed arteries from sedentary and exercise-trained rats (1999) J Appl Physiol, 86, pp. 441-449Javier, F., Manuel, R., Manuel, R.R., Regular physical activity increases glutathione peroxidaseactivity in adolescents with down syndrome (2006) Clin J Sport Med, 16, pp. 355-356Johnson, J.A., Gray, M.O., Chen, C.H., Mochly-Rosen, D.A., A protein kinase C translocation inhibitor as an enzyme-selective antagonist of cardiac function (1996) J Biol Chem, 271, pp. 24962-24966Jungersten, L., Ambring, A., Wall, B., Wennmalm, A., Both physical fitness and acute exercise regulate nitric oxide formation in healthy human (1997) J Appl Physiol, 82, pp. 760-764Katona, P.G., Mclean, M., Dighton, D.H., Guz, A., Sympathetic and parasympathetic cardiac control in athletes and nonathletes at rest (1982) J Appl Physiol, 52, pp. 1652-1657Kaumann, A.J., Molenaar, P., Modulation of human cardiac function through 4-beta-adrenoceptor populations (1997) Naunyn Schmiedeberg's Arch Pharmacol, 355, pp. 667-681Kim, N., Azadzoi, K.M., Golstein, I., Saenz de Tejada, I., A nitric oxide-like factor mediates neurogenic relaxation of penile smooth muscle (1991) J Clin Invest, 88, pp. 112-118Kingwell, B.A., Nitric oxide-mediated metabolic regulation during exercise: effects of training in health and cardiovascular disease (2000) FASEB J, 14, pp. 1685-1696Korzick, D.H., Regulation of cardiac excitation-contraction coupling: a cellular update (2003) Adv Physiol Educ, 27, pp. 192-200Korzick, D.H., Moore, R.L., Chronic exercise enhances cardiac alpha-1adrenergic inotropic responsiveness rats with mild hypertension (1996) Am J Physiol, 271, pp. H2599-H2608Korzick, D.H., Holiman, D.A., Boluyt, M.O., Laughlin, M.H., Lakatta, E.G., Diminished α1-adrenergic-mediated contraction and translocation of PKC in senescent rat heart (2001) Am J Physiol, 281, pp. H581-H589Korzick, D.H., Hunter, J.C., McDowell, M.K., Delp, M.D., Tickerhoof, M.M., Carson, L.D., Chronic exercise improves myocardial inotropic reserve capacity through alpha1-adrenergic and protein kinase C-dependent effects in senescent rats (2004) J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci, 59, pp. 1089-1098Krieger, E.M., Brum, P.C., Negrão, C.E., Role of arterial baroreceptor function on cardiovascular adjustments to acute and chronic dynamic exercise (1998) Biol Res, 31, pp. 273-279Kubo, T., Fukuda, K., Mikami, A., Maeda, A., Takahashi, H., Mishima, M., Cloning, sequencing and expression of complementary DNA encoding the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (1986) Nature, 323, pp. 411-416Lands, A.M., Arnold, A., MCauliff, J.P., Luduena, F.R., Brown, T.B., Differentiation of receptors systems activated by sympatomimetic amines (1967) Nature, 214, pp. 597-598Langer, S.Z., Presynaptic regulation of catecholamine release (1974) Biochem Pharmacol, 23, pp. 1793-1800Larson, M., Wang, A., Exercise, aging, and Alzheimer disease (2004) Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord, 18, pp. 54-56Laughlin, H.M., Schrage, W.G., McAllister, R.M., Garverick, H.A., Jones, A.W., Interaction of gender and exercise training: vasomotor reactivity of porcine skeletal muscle arteries (2001) J Appl Physiol, 90, pp. 216-227Lin, Y.C., Horvath, S.M., Autonomic nervous control of cardiac frequency in the exercise-trained rat (1972) J Appl Physiol, 6, pp. 796-799Linke, A., Adams, V., Schulze, P.C., Erbs, S., Gielen, S., Fiehn, E., Antioxidative effects of exercise training in patients with chronic heart failure: increase in radical scavenger enzyme activity in skeletal muscle (2005) Circulation, 111, pp. 1763-1770Lomasney, J.W., Cotecchia, S., Lefkowitz, R.J., Caron, M.G., Molecular biology of α-adrenergic receptors: implications for receptor classification and for structure-function relationships (1991) Biochim Biophys Acta, 1095, pp. 127-139Maciel, B.C., Gallo Jr., L., Neto, J.A.M., Lima Filho, E.C., Terra Filho, J., Manço, J.A., Parasympathetic contribution to bradycardia induced by endurance training in man (1985) Cardiovasc Res, 19, pp. 642-648Marsh, S.A., Coombes, J.S., Exercise and the endothelial cell (2005) Int J Cardiol, 99, pp. 165-169McAllister, R.M., Laughlin, M.H., Short-term exercise training alters responses of porcine femoral and brachial arteries (1997) J Appl Physiol, 82, pp. 1438-1444McAllister, R.M., Kimani, K.J., Webster, J.L., Parker, J.L., Laughlin, M.H., Effects of exercise training on responses of peripheral and visceral arteries in swine (1996) J Appl Physiol, 80, pp. 216-225Meester, B.J., Shankley, N.P., Welsh, N.J., Wood, J., Meijler, F.L., Black, J.W., Pharmacological classification of adenosine receptors in the sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodes of the guinea-pig (1998) Br J Pharmacol, 124, pp. 685-692Mercier, J., Perez-Martin, A., Bigard, X., Ventura, R., Muscle plasticity and metabolism: effects of exercise and chronic diseases (1999) Mol Aspects Med, 20, pp. 319-373Michel, M.C., Kanczik, R., Khamssi, M., Knorr, A., Siegl, H., Beckeringh, J.J., α-, β1-, and β2-Adrenoceptors in rat models of acquired hypertension (1989) J Cardiovasc Pharmacol, 13, pp. 421-431Moncada, S., Palmer, R.M.J., Higgs, E.A., Nitric oxide: physiology, and pharmacology (1991) Pharmacol Rev, 43, pp. 109-142Moore, R.L., Korzick, D.H., Cellular adaptations of the myocardium to chronic exercise (1995) Prog Cardiovasc Dis, 37, pp. 371-396Moore, R.L., Riedy, M., Gollnick, P.D., Effect of training on beta-adrenergic receptor number in rat heart (1982) J Appl Physiol, 52, pp. 1133-1137Mullane, K., Bullough, D., Harnessing an endogenous cardioprotective mechanism: cellular sources and sites of action of adenosine (1995) J Mol Cell Cardiol, 27, pp. 1041-1054Muller, S.C., el-Damanhoury, H., Ruth, J., Lue, T.F., Hypertension and impotence (1991) Eur Urol, 19 (1), pp. 29-34Negrão, C.E., Moreira, E.D., Brum, P.C., Denadai, M.L.D.R., Krieger, E.M., Vagal and sympathetic control of heart rate during exercise by sedentary and exercise-trained rats (1992) Braz J Med Biol Res, 25, pp. 1045-1052O'Sullivan, S.E., Bell, C., The effects of exercise and training on human cardiovascular reflex control (2000) J Auton Nerv Syst, 81, pp. 16-24Okamura, T., Ayajiki, K., Toda, N., Monkey corpus cavernosum relaxation mediated by NO and other relaxing factor derived from nerves (1998) Am J Physiol, 274, pp. H1075-H1081Olsson, R.A., Pearson, J.D., Cardiovascular purinoceptors (1990) Physiol Rev, 70, pp. 761-845Oltman, C.L., Parker, J.L., Adams, H.R., Laughlin, M.H., Effects of exercise training on vasomotor reactivity of porcine coronary arteries (1992) Am J Physiol, 263, pp. H372-H382Oltman, C.L., Parker, J.L., Laughlin, M.H., Endothelium-dependent vasodilation of proximal coronary arteries from exercise-trained pigs (1995) J Appl Physiol, 79, pp. 33-40Paffenbarger, R.S., Hyde, R.T., Wing, A.L., The association of changes in physical-activity level and other lifestyle characteristics eith mortality among men (1993) N Engl J Med, 328, pp. 538-545Palmer, R.M.J., Ferrige, A.G., Moncada, S., Nitric ocide release accounts for the biological activity of endothelium derived relaxing factor (1987) Nature, 327, pp. 524-526Parker, J.L., Oltman, C.L., Muller, J.M., Myers, P.R., Adams, H.R., Laughlin, M.H., Effetcs of exercise training on regulation of tone in coronary arteries and arterioles (1994) Med Sci Sports Exerc, 26, pp. 1252-1261Pickard, R.S., Powell, P.H., Zar, M.A., The effects of inhibition of nitric oxide biosynthesis and cyclic GMP formation on nerve-evoked relaxation of human cavernosal smooth muscle (1991) Br J Pharmacol, 104, pp. 755-759Plourde, G., Rousseau-Migneron, S., Nadeau, A., Beta-adrenoceptor adenylate cyclase adaptation to physical training in rat ventricular tissue (1991) J Appl Physiol, 70, pp. 1633-1638Poveda, J.J., Riestra, A., Salas, E., Cagigas, M.L., Lopes-Somoza, C., Amado, J.A., Contribution of nitric oxide to exercise-induced changes in healthy volunteer: effects of acute exercise and long-term physical training (1997) Eur J Clin Invest, 27, pp. 967-971Priviero, F.B.M., De Nucci, G., Antunes, E., Zanesco, A., Chronotropic response to adenosine receptor agonists in rat right atria after run training (2004) Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol, 31, pp. 741-743Ralevic, V., Burnstock, G., Receptors for purines and pyrimidines (1998) Pharmacol Rev, 50, pp. 413-492Recio, P., Lopez, P.G., Hernandez, M., Prieto, D., Contreras, J., Garcia-Sacristan, A., Nitrergic relaxation of the horse corpus cavernosum. Role of cGMP (1998) Eur J Pharmacol, 351, pp. 85-94Ribeiro, J.A., Sebastiäo, A.M., Adenosine receptors and calcium: Basis for proposing a third A3 adenosine receptor (1986) Prog Neurobiol, 26, pp. 179-209Rodbell, M., The role of hormone receptors and GTP-regulatory proteins in membrane transduction (1980) Nature, 284, pp. 17-22Rogers, P.J., Miller, T.D., Bauer, B.A., Brum, J.M., Bove, A.A., Vanhoutte, P.M., Exercise training and responsiveness of isolated coronary arteries (1991) J Appl Physiol, 71, pp. 2346-2351Roth, D.A., White, C.D., Podolin, D.A., Mazzeo, R.S., Alterations in myocardial signal transduction due to aging and chronic dynamic exercise (1998) J Appl Physiol, 84, pp. 177-184Rush, J.W.E., Turk, J.R., Laughlin, M.H., Exercise training regulates SOD-1 and oxidative stress in porcine aortic endothelium (2002) Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 284, pp. H1378-H1387Scarpace, P.J., Shu, Y., Tumer, N., Influence of exercise training on myocardial beta-adrenergic signal transduction: differential regulation with age (1994) J Appl Physiol, 77, pp. 737-741Schaefer, M.E., Allert, J.A., Adams, H.R., Laughlin, M.H., Adrenergic responsiveness and intrinsic sinoatrial automativity of exercise-traned rats (1992) Med Sci Sports Exerc, 24, pp. 887-894Schena, F., Cuzzolin, L., Rossi, L., Pasetto, M., Benoni, G., Plasma nitrite/nitrate and erythropoietin levels in cross-country skiers dirung altitude training (2002) J Sports Med Phys Fitness, 42, pp. 129-134Scheuer, J., Tipton, C.M., Cardiovascular adaptations to physical training (1977) Annu Rev Physiol, 39, pp. 221-251Sessa, W.C., Pritchard, K., Seyedi, N., Wang, J., Hintze, T.H., Chronic exercise in dogs increases coronary vascular nitric oxide production and endothelial cell nitric oxide synthase gene expression (1994) Circ Res, 74, pp. 349-353Shi, X., Stevens, G.H.J., Foresman, B.H., Stern, S.A., Raven, P.B., Autonomic nervous system control of the heart: endurance exercise training (1995) Med Sci Sports Exerc, 27, pp. 1406-1413Stiles, G.L., Caron, M.G., Lefkowitz, R.J., β2-adrenergic receptors: Biochemical mechanism of physiological regulation (1984) Physiol Rev, 64, pp. 661-743Sun, D., Huang, H., Koller, A., Kaley, G., Short-term daily exercise activity enhances endothelial NO synthesis in skeletal muscle arterioles of rats (1994) J Appl Physiol, 76, pp. 2241-2247Sutoo, A., Akiyama, B., Regulation of brain function by exercise (2003) Neurobiol Dis, 13, pp. 1-14Sylvestre-Gervais, L., Nadeau, A., Nguyen, M.H., Tancrede, G., Rousseau-Migneron, S., Effects of physical training on beta-adrenergic receptors in rat myocardial tissue (1982) Cardiovasc Res, 16, pp. 530-534Tomita, T., Murakami, T., Iwase, T., Nagai, K., Fujita, J., Sasayama, S., Chronic dynamic exercise improves a functional abnormality of the G stimulatory protein in cardiomyopathic BIO 53.58 Syrian hamsters (1994) Circulation, 89, pp. 836-845Tordi, N., Corlin, E., Mourot, L., Bouhaddi, M., Regnard, J., Laurant, P., Effects of resuming endurance training on arterial stiffness and nitric oxide production during exercise in elite cyclists (2006) J Appl Physiol Nutr Metab, 31, pp. 244-249Touyz, R.M., Schiffrin, E.L., Reactive oxygen species in vascular biology: implications in hypertension (2004) Histochem Cell Biol, 122, pp. 339-352Traub, O., Berk, B.C., Laminar shear stress Mechanisms by which endothelial cells trasnduce an atheroprotective force (1998) Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, 18, pp. 677-685Vago, T., Bevelacqua, M., Norbiato, G., Baldi, G., Chebat, E., Bertora, P., Identification of α1-adrenergic receptors on sarcolemma from normal subjects and patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: characteristics and linkages to GTP-bindings protein (1989) Circ Res, 64, pp. 474-481Vanhoutte, P.M., Endothelial control of vasomotor function (2003) Circ Res, 67, pp. 572-575Wang, J., Wolin, M.S., Hintze, T.H., Chronic exercise enhances endothelium-mediated dilation of epicardial coronary artery in conscious dogs (1993) Circ Res, 73, pp. 829-838Webb, R.C., Smooth muscle contraction and relaxation (2003) Adv Physiol Educ, 27, pp. 201-206Werle, E.O., Strobel, G., Weicker, H., Decrease in rat cardiac beta1- and beta2- adrenoceptors by training and endurance exercise (1990) Life Sci, 46, pp. 9-17West, G.A., Belardinelli, L., Sinus slowing and pacemaker shift caused by adenosine in rabbit AS node (1985) Pflügers Arch, 403, pp. 66-74Williams, R.S., Physical conditioning and membrane receptors for cardioregulatory hormones (1980) Cardiovasc Res, 14, pp. 177-182Williams, R.S., Schaible, T.F., Bishop, T., Morey, M., Effects of endurance training on cholinergic and adrenergic receptors of rat heart (1984) J Mol Cell Cardiol, 16, pp. 395-403Woodman, R.C., Price, E.M., Laughlin, M.H., Shear stress induces eNOS mRNA expression and improves endothelium-dependent dilation in senescent soleus muscle feed arteries (2005) J Appl Physiol, 98, pp. 940-946Yen, M.H., Yang, J.H., Sheu, J.R., Lee, Y.M., An Ding, Y., Chronic exercise enhances endothelium-mediated dilation in spontaneously hypertensive rats (1995) Life Sci, 24, pp. 2205-2213Zanesco, A., Claudino, M.A., Priviero, F.B.M., Teixeira, C.E., de Nucci, G., Antunes, E., Effect of run training on erectile response of rats made hypertensive by N-G-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester treatment (2005) XVIth Scientific Meeting of the Interamerican Society of Hypertension, 17. , Cancun, Mexico