This review is centered on the major strategies used by plant RNA viruses to produce the proteins required for virus multiplication. The strategies at the level of transcription presented here are synthesis of mRNA or subgenomic RNAs from viral RNA templates, and 'cap-snatching'. At the level of translation, several strategies have been evolved by viruses at the steps of initiation, elongation and termination. At the initiation step, the classical scanning mode is the most frequent strategy employed by viruses; however in a vast number of cases, leaky scanning of the initiation complex allows expression of more than one protein from the same RNA sequence. During elongation, frameshift allows the formation of two proteins differing in their carboxy terminus. At the termination step, suppression of termination produces a protein with an elongated carboxy terminus. The last strategy that will be described is co- and/or post-translational cleavage of a polyprotein precursor by virally encoded proteinases. Most (+)-stranded RNA viruses utilize a combination of various strategies.321-2367391Agol, V.I., The 5′-untranslated region of picornaviral genomes (1991) Adv Virus Res, 40, pp. 103-180Agranovsky, A.A., Bokyo, V.P., Karasev, A.V., Lunina, N.A., Koonin, E.V., Dolja, V.V., Nucleotide sequence of the 3′-terminal half of beet yellows closterovirus RNA genome: Unique arrangement of eight virus genes (1991) J Gen Virol, 72, pp. 15-23Agranovsky, A.A., Koonin, E.V., Boyko, V.P., Maiss, E., Frötschl, R., Lunina, N.A., Atabekov, J.G., Beet yellows closterovirus: Complete genome structure and identification of a leader papain-like thiol protease (1994) Virology, 198, pp. 311-324Ahlquist, P., Luckow, V., Kaesberg, P., Complete nucleotide sequence of brome mosaic virus RNA 3 (1981) J Mol Biol, 153, pp. 23-38Angenent, G.C., Linthorst, H.J.M., Van Belkum, A.F., Cornelissen, B.J.C., Bol, J.F., RNA 2 of tobacco rattle virus strain TCM encodes an unexpected gene (1986) Nucl Acids Res, 14, pp. 4673-4682Bahner, I., Lamb, J., Mayo, M.A., Hay, R.T., Expression of the genome of potato leafroll virus: Readthrough of the coat protein termination codon in vivo (1990) J Gen Virol, 71, pp. 2251-2256Balmori, E., Gilmer, D., Richards, K., Guilley, H., Jonard, G., Mapping the promoter for subgenomic RNA synthesis on beet necrotic yellow vein virus RNA3 (1993) Biochimie, 75, pp. 517-521Barker, R.F., Jarvis, N.P., Thompson, D.V., Loesch-Fries, L.S., Hall, T.C., Complete nucleotide sequence of alfalfa mosaic virus RNA3 (1983) Nucl Acids Res, 11, pp. 2881-2891Barrera, I., Schuppli, D., Sogo, J.M., Weber, H., Different mechanisms of recognition of bacteriophage Qβ plus and minus strand RNAs by Qβ replicase (1993) J Mol Biol, 232, pp. 512-521Beck, D.L., Guilford, P.J., Voot, D.M., Andersen, M.T., Forster, R.L.S., Triple gene block proteins of white clover mosaic potexvirus are required for transport (1991) Virology, 183, pp. 695-702Beier, H., Barciszewska, M., Krupp, G., Mittnacht, R., Gross, H.J., UAG readthrough during TMV RNA translation: Isolation and sequence of two tRNAsTyr with suppressor activity from tobacco plants (1984) EMBO J, 3, pp. 351-356Kozak, M., Downstream secondary structure facilitates recognition of initiator codons by eukaryotic ribosomes (1990) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 87, pp. 8301-8305Kozak, M., Structural features in eukaryotic mRNAs that modulate the initiation of translation (1991) J Biol Chem, 266, pp. 19867-19870Kozak, M., Determinants of translational fidelity and efficiency in vertebrate mRNAs (1994) Biochimie, 76, pp. 815-821Kozak, M., Adherence to the first-AUG rule when a second AUG codon follows closely upon the first (1995) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 92, pp. 2662-2666Kujawa, A.B., Drageon, G., Hulanicka, D., Haenni, A.-L., Structural requirements for efficient translational frameshifting in the synthesis of the putative viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of potato leafroll virus (1993) Nucl Acids Res, 21, pp. 2165-2171Lawrence, D.M., Rozanov, M.N., Hillman, B.I., Autocatalytic processing of the 223-kDa protein of blueberry scorch carlavirus by papain-like proteinase (1995) Virology, 207, pp. 127-135Lehto, K., Grantham, G.L., Dawson, W.O., Insertion of sequences containing the coat protein subgenomic RNA promoter and leader in front of the tobacco mosaic virus 30K ORF delays its expression and causes defective cell-to-cell movement (1990) Virology, 174, pp. 145-157Lommel, S.A., Kendall, T.L., Xiong, Z., Nutter, R.C., Identification of the maize chlorotic mottle virus capsid protein cistron and characterization of its subgenomic messenger RNA (1991) Virology, 181, pp. 382-385Lütcke, H.A., Chow, K.C., Mickel, F.S., Moss, K.A., Kern, H.F., Scheele, G.A., Selection of AUG initiation codons differs in plants and animals (1987) EMBO J, 6, pp. 43-48MacFarlane, S.A., Taylor, S.C., King, D.I., Hughes, G., Davies, J.W., Pea early browning virus RNA1 encodes four polypeptides including a putative zinc-finger protein (1989) Nucl Acids Res, 17, pp. 2245-2260Belsham, G.J., Lomonossoff, G.P., The mechanism of translation of cowpea mosaic virus middle component RNA: No evidence for internal initiation from experiments in an animal cell transient expression system (1991) J Gen Virol, 72, pp. 3109-3113Mäkinen, K., Nöss, V., Tamm, T., Truve, E., Aaspællu, A., Saarma, M., The putative replicase of the cocksfoot mottle sobemovirus is translated as a part of the polyprotein by - 1 ribosomal frameshift (1995) Virology, 207, pp. 566-571Margis, R., Pinck, L., Effects of site-directed mutagenesis on the presumed catalytic triad and substrate-binding pocket of grapevine fanleaf nepovirus 24-kDa proteinase (1992) Virology, 190, pp. 884-888Marsh, L.E., Dreher, T.W., Hall, T.C., Mutational analysis of the core and modulator sequences of the BMV RNA3 subgenomic promoter (1988) Nucl Acids Res, 16, pp. 981-995Mayo, M.A., Joly, C.A., Murant, A.F., Raschke, J.H., Nucleotide sequence of raspberry bushy dwarf virus RNA-3 (1991) J Gen Virol, 72, pp. 469-472Mayo, M.A., Robinson, D.J., Jolly, C.A., Hyman, L., Nucleotide sequence of potato leafroll luteovirus RNA (1989) J Gen Virol, 70, pp. 1037-1051Meulewaeter, F., Seurinck, J., Van Emmelo, J., Genome structure of tobacco necrosis virus strain a (1990) Virology, 177, pp. 699-709Miller, J.S., Mayo, M.A., The location of the 5′ end of the potato leafroll luteovirus subgenomic coat protein mRNA (1991) J Gen Virol, 72, pp. 2633-2638Miller, W.A., Dinesh-Kumar, S.P., Paul, C.P., Luteovirus gene expression (1995) Crit Rev Plant Sci, 14, pp. 179-211Miller, W.A., Dreher, T.W., Hall, T.C., Synthesis of brome mosaic virus subgenomic RNA in vitro by internal initiation on (-)-sense genomic RNA (1985) Nature, 313, pp. 68-70Miller, W.A., Waterhouse, P.M., Gerlach, W.L., Sequence and organization of barley yellow dwarf virus genomic RNA (1988) Nucl Acids Res, 16, pp. 6097-6111Boccara, M., Hamilton, W.D.O., Baulcombe, D.C., The organisation and interviral homologies of genes at the 3′ end of tobacco rattle virus RNA1 (1986) EMBO J, 5, pp. 223-229Mirkov, T.E., Mathews, D.M., Du Plessis, D.H., Dodds, J.A., Nucleotide sequence and translation of satellite tobacco mosaic virus RNA (1989) Virology, 170, pp. 139-146Mise, K., Tsuge, S., Nagao, K., Okuno, T., Furusawa, I., Nucleotide sequence responsible for the synthesis of a truncated coat protein of brome mosaic virus strain ATCC66 (1992) J Gen Virol, 73, pp. 2543-2551Morch, M.-D., Boyer, J.-C., Haenni, A.-L., Overlapping open reading frames revealed by complete nucleotide sequencing of turnip yellow mosaic virus genomic RNA (1988) Nucl Acids Res, 16, pp. 6157-6173Morch, M.-D., Drugeon, G., Szafranski, P., Haenni, A.-L., Proteolytic origin of the 150-kilodalton protein encoded by turnip yellow mosaic virus genomic RNA (1989) J Virol, 63, pp. 5153-5158Morozov, S.Y., Miroshnichenko, N.A., Solovyev, A.G., Fedorkin, O.N., Zelenina, D.A., Lukasheva, L.I., Karasev, A.V., Atabekov, J.G., Expression strategy of the potato virus X triple gene block (1991) J Gen Virol, 72, pp. 2039-2042Mushegian, A.R., Koonin, E.V., Cell-to-cell movement of plant viruses: Insights from amino acid sequence comparisons of movement proteins and from analogies with cellular transport systems (1993) Arch Virol, 133, pp. 239-257Natsuaki, T., Mayo, M.A., Joly, C.A., Murant, A.F., Nucleotide sequence of raspberry bushy dwarf virus RNA-2: A bicistronic component of a bipartite genome (1991) J Gen Virol, 72, pp. 2183-2189Nicolaisen, M., Johansen, E., Poulsen, G.B., Borkhardt, B., The 5′ untranslated region from pea seedborne mosaic potyvirus RNA as a translational enhancer in pea and tobacco protoplasts (1992) FEBS Lett, 303, pp. 169-172Niesbach-Klösgen, U., Guilley, H., Jonard, G., Richards, K., Immunodetection in vivo of beet necrotic yellow vein virus-encoded proteins (1990) Virology, 178, pp. 52-61Nutter, R.C., Scheets, K., Panganiban, L.C., Lommel, S.A., The complete nucleotide sequence of the maize chlorotic mottle virus genome (1989) Nucl Acids Res, 17, pp. 3163-3177Boccard, F., Baulcombe, D., Mutational analysis of cis-acting sequences and gene function in RNA3 of cucumber mosaic virus (1993) Virology, 193, pp. 563-578Oh, C.-S., Carrington, J.C., Identification of essential residues in potyvirus proteinase HC-Pro by site-directed mutagenesis (1989) Virology, 173, pp. 692-699Osman, T.A.M., Buck, K.W., Double-stranded RNAs isolated from plant tissue infected with red clover necrotic mosaic virus correspond to genomic and subgenomic single-stranded RNAs (1990) J Gen Virol, 71, pp. 945-948Othman, Y., Hull, R., Nucleotide sequence of the bean strain of southern bean mosaic virus (1995) Virology, 206, pp. 287-297Ou, J.-H., Rice, C.M., Dalgarno, L., Strauss, E.G., Strauss, J.H., Sequence studies of several alphavirus genomic RNAs in the region containing the start of the subgenomic RNA (1982) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 79, pp. 5253-15239Palukaitis, P., Roossinck, M.J., Dietzgen, R.G., Francki, R.I.B., Cucumber mosaic virus (1992) Adv Virus Res, 41, pp. 281-348Parks, T.D., Howard, E.D., Wolpert, T.J., Arp, D.J., Dougherty, W.G., Expression and purification of a recombinant tobacco etch virus NIa proteinase: Biochemical analyses of the full-length and a naturally occurring truncated proteinase form (1995) Virology, 210, pp. 194-201Pelham, H.R.B., Leaky UAG termination codon in tobacco mosaic virus RNA (1978) Nature, 272, pp. 469-471Pelham, H.R.B., Translation of tobacco rattle virus RNAs in vitro: Four proteins from three RNAs (1979) Virology, 97, pp. 256-265Peters, S.A., Voorhorst, W.G.B., Wery, J., Wellink, J., Van Kammen, A., A regulatory role for the 32K protein in proteolytic processing of cowpea mosaic virus polyproteins (1992) Virology, 191, pp. 81-89Petty, I.T.D., Jackson, A.O., Two forms of the major barley stripe mosaic virus nonstructural protein are synthesized in vivo from alternative initiation codons (1990) Virology, 177, pp. 829-832Boonham, N., Henry, C.M., Wood, K.R., The nucleotide sequence and proposed genome organization of oat chlorotic stunt virus, a new soil-borne virus of cereals (1995) J Gen Virol, 76, pp. 2025-2034Prüfer, D., Tacke, E., Schmitz, J., Kull, B., Kaufmann, A., Rohde, W., Ribosomal frameshifting in plants: A novel signal directs the -1 frameshift in the synthesis of the putative viral replicase of potato leafroll luteovirus (1992) EMBO J, 11, pp. 1111-1117Ramírez, B.-C., Garcin, D., Calvert, L.A., Kolakofsky, D., Haenni, A.-L., Capped nonviral sequences at the 5′ end of the mRNAs of rice hoja blanca virus RNA4 (1995) J Virol, 69, pp. 1951-1954Ramírez, B.-C., Haenni, A.-L., Molecular biology of tenuiviruses, a remarkable group of plant viruses (1994) J Gen Virol, 75, pp. 467-475Rathjen, J.P., Karageorgos, L.E., Habili, N., Waterhouse, P.M., Symons, R.H., Soybean dwarf luteovirus contains the third variant genome type in the luteovirus group (1994) Virology, 198, pp. 671-679Restrepo-Hartwig, M.A., Carrington, J.C., Regulation of nuclear transport of a plant potyvirus protein by autoproteolysis (1992) J Virol, 66, pp. 5662-5666Rezaian, M.A., Williams, R.H.V., Gordon, K.H.J., Gould, A.R., Symons, R.H., Nucleotide sequence of cucumber-mosaic-virus RNA 2 reveals a translation product significantly homologous to corresponding proteins of other viruses (1984) Eur J Biochem, 143, pp. 277-284Riechmann, J.L., Laín, S., García, J.A., Identification of the initiation codon of plum pox potyvirus genomic RNA (1991) Virology, 185, pp. 544-552Riechmann, J.L., Laín, S., García, J.A., Highlights and prospects of potyvirus molecular biology (1992) J Gen Virol, 73, pp. 1-16Riviere, C.J., Rochon, D.M., Nucleotide sequence and genomic organization of melon necrotic spot virus (1990) J Gen Virol, 71, pp. 1887-1896Rochon, D.M., Johnston, J.C., Infectious transcripts from cloned cucumber necrosis virus cDNA: Evidence for a bifunctional subgenomic mRNA (1991) Virology, 181, pp. 656-665Bouloy, M., Bunyaviridae: Genome organization and replication strategies (1991) Adv Virus Res, 40, pp. 235-275Rochon, D.M., Tremaine, J.H., Complete nucleotide sequence of the cucumber necrosis virus genome (1989) Virology, 169, pp. 251-259Rohde, W., Gramstat, A., Schmitz, J., Tacke, E., Prüfer, D., Plant viruses as model systems for the study of non-canonical translation mechanisms in higher plants (1994) J Gen Virol, 75, pp. 2141-2149Roossinck, M.J., Sleat, D., Palukaitis, P., Satellite RNAs of plant viruses: Structures and biological effects (1992) Microbiol Rev, 56, pp. 265-279Rouleau, M., Smith, R.J., Bancroft, J.B., Mackie, G.A., Purification, properties, and subcellular localization of foxtail mosaic potexvirus 26-kDa protein (1994) Virology, 204, pp. 254-265Rozanov, M.N., Drugeon, G., Haenni, A.-L., Papain-like proteinase of turnip yellow mosaic virus: A prototype of a new viral proteinase group (1995) Arch Virol, 140, pp. 273-288Rupasov, V.V., Morozov, S.Y., Kanuyka, K.V., Zavriev, S.K., Partial nucleotide sequence of potato virus M RNA shows similarities to potexviruses in gene arrangement and the encoded amino acid sequences (1989) J Gen Virol, 70, pp. 1861-1869Russo, M., Burgyan, J., Martelli, G.P., Molecular biology of Tombusviridae (1994) Adv Virus Res, 44, pp. 381-428Ryabov, E.V., Generozov, E.V., Kendall, T.L., Lommel, S.A., Zavriev, S.K., Nucleotide sequence of carnation ringspot dianthovirus RNA-1 (1994) J Gen Virol, 75, pp. 243-247Schmitt, C., Balmori, E., Jonard, G., Richards, K.E., Guilley, H., In vitro mutagenesis of biologically active transcripts of beet necrotic yellow vein virus RNA 2: Evidence that a domain of the 75-kDa readthrough protein is important for efficient virus assembly (1992) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 89, pp. 5715-5719Schmitz, J., Prüfer, D., Rohde, W., Tacke, E., Non-canonical translation mechanisms in plants: Efficient in vitro and in planta initiation at AUU codons of the tobacco mosaic virus enhancer sequence (1996) Nucl Acids Res, 24, pp. 257-263Bouzoubaa, S., Niesbach-Klösgen, U., Jupin, I., Guilley, H., Richards, K., Jonard, G., Shortened forms of beet necrotic yellow vein virus RNA-3 and -4: Internal deletions and a subgenomic RNA (1991) J Gen Virol, 72, pp. 259-266Kp, S., Kashiwazaki, S., Reavy, B., Harrison, B.D., The nucleotide sequence of potato mop-top virus RNA 2: A novel type of genome organization for a furovirus (1994) J Gen Virol, 75, pp. 3561-3568Shen, P., Kaniewska, M., Smith, C., Beachy, R.N., Nucleotide sequence and genomic organisation of rice tungro spherical virus (1993) Virology, 193, pp. 621-630Shih, D.-S., Lane, L.C., Kaesberg, P., Origin of the small component of brome mosaic virus RNA (1972) J Mol Biol, 64, pp. 353-362Shirako, Y., Wilson, T.M.A., Complete nucleotide sequence and organization of the bipartite RNA genome of soil-borne wheat mosaic virus (1993) Virology, 195, pp. 16-32Skotnicki, M.L., Mackenzie, A.M., Torronen, M., Gibbs, A.J., The genomic sequence of cardamine chlorotic fleck carmovirus (1993) J Gen Virol, 74, pp. 1933-1937Skryabin, K.G., Morozov, S.Y., Kraev, A.S., Rozanov, M.N., Chernov, B.K., Lukasheva, L.I., Atabekov, J.G., Conserved and variable elements in RNA genomes of potexviruses (1988) FEBS Lett, 240, pp. 33-40Skuzeski, J.M., Nichols, L.M., Gesteland, R.F., Atkins, J.F., The signal for a leaky UAG stop codon in several plant viruses includes the two downstream codons (1991) J Mol Biol, 218, pp. 365-373Smirnyagina, E., Hsu, Y.-H., Chua, N., Ahlquist, P., Second-site mutations in the brome mosaic virus RNA3 intercistronic region partially suppress a defect in coat protein mRNA transcription (1994) Virology, 198, pp. 427-436Stanley, J., Hanau, R., Jackson, A.O., Sequence comparison of the 3′ ends of a subgenomic RNA and the genomic RNAs of barley stripe mosaic virus (1984) Virology, 139, pp. 375-383Tacke, E., Prüfer, D., Salamini, F., Rohde, W., Characterization of a potato leafroll luteovirus subgenomic RNA: Differential expression by internal translation initiation and UAG suppression (1990) J Gen Virol, 71, pp. 2265-2272Bouzoubaa, S., Ziegler, V., Beck, D., Guilley, H., Richards, K., Jonard, G., Nucleotide sequence of beet necrotic yellow vein virus RNA-2 (1986) J Gen Virol, 67, pp. 1689-1700Tavazza, M., Lucioli, A., Calogero, A., Pay, A., Tavazza, R., Nucleotide sequence, genomic organization and synthesis of infectious transcripts from a full-length clone of artichoke mottle crinkle virus (1994) J Gen Virol, 75, pp. 1515-1524Ten Dam, E.B., (1995) Pseudoknot-dependent Ribosomal Frameshifting, , Ph. D. thesis, University of LeidenTen Dam, E.B., Pleij, C.W.A., Bosch, L., RNA pseudoknots: Translational frameshifting and readthrough on viral RNAs (1990) Virus Genes, 4, pp. 121-136Thomas, A.A.M., Ter Haar, E., Wellink, J., Voorma, H.O., Cowpea mosaic virus middle component RNA contains a sequence that allows internal binding of ribosomes and that requires eukaryotic initiation factor 4F for optimal translation (1991) J Virol, 65, pp. 2953-2959Tordo, V.M.-J., Chachulska, A.M., Fakhfakh, H., Le Romancer, M., Robaglia, C., Astier-Manifacier, S., Sequence polymorphism in the 5′ NTR and in the P1 coding region of potato virus Y genomic RNA (1995) J Gen Virol, 76, pp. 939-949Turnbull-Ross, A.D., Mayo, M.A., Reavy, B., Murant, A.F., Sequence analysis of the parsnip yellow fleck virus polyprotein: Evidence of affinities with picornaviruses (1993) J Gen Virol, 74, pp. 555-561Turpen, T.H., Reinl, S.J., Charoenvit, Y., Hoffman, S.L., Fallarme, V., Grill, L.K., Malarial epitopes expressed on the surface of recombinant tobacco mosaic virus (1995) Bio/Technology, 13, pp. 53-57Urban, C., Beier, H., Cysteine tRNAs of plant origin as novel UGA suppressors (1995) Nucl Acids Res, 1995, pp. 4591-4597Valle, R.P.C., Drugeon, G., Devignes-Morch, M.-D., Legocki, A.B., Haenni, A.-L., Codon context effect in virus translational readthrough. a study in vitro of the determinants of TMV and Mo-MuLV amber suppression (1992) FEBS Lett, 306, pp. 133-139Valle, R.P.C., Haenni, A.-L., Peptide chain termination (1991) Translation in Eukaryotes, pp. 177-189. , Trachsel H (ed) CRC Press, Boca Raton, FLBransom, K.L., Dreher, T.W., Identification of the essential cysteine and histidine residues of the turnip yellow mosaic virus protease (1994) Virology, 198, pp. 148-154Van Der Kuyl, A.C., Langereis, K., Houwing, C.J., Jaspars, E.M.J., Bol, J.F., Cis-Acting elements involved in replication of alfalfa virus RNAs in vitro (1990) Virology, 176, pp. 346-354Van Der Vossen, E.A.G., Notenboom, T., Bol, J.F., Characterization of sequences controlling the synthesis of alfalfa mosaic virus subgenomic RNA in vivo (1995) Virology, 212, pp. 663-672Van Der Wilk, F., Huisman, M.J., Cornelissen, B.J.C., Huttinga, H., Goldbach, R., Nucleotide sequence and organization of potato leafroll virus genomiBransom, K.L., Weiland, J.J., Dreher, T.W., Proteolytic maturation of the 206-kDa nonstructural protein encoded by turnip yellow mosaic virus RNA (1991) Virology, 184, pp. 351-358Brault, V., Miller, W.A., Translational frameshifting mediated by a viral sequence in plant cells (1992) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 89, pp. 2262-2266Brault, V., Van Den Heuvel, J.F.J.M., Verbeek, M., Ziegler-Graff, V., Reutenauer, A., Herrbach, E., Garaud, J.-C., Jonard, G., Aphid transmission of beet western yellows luteovirus requires the minor capsid read-through protein P74 (1995) EMBO J, 14, pp. 650-659Brederode, F.T., Koper-Zwarthoff, E.C., Bol, J.F., Complete nucleotide sequence of alfalfa mosaic virus RNA 4 (1980) Nucl Acids Res, 8, pp. 2213-2223Brierley, I., Ribosomal frameshifting on viral RNAs (1995) J Gen Virol, 76, pp. 1885-1892Brooks, M., Bruening, G., A subgenomic RNA associated with cherry leafroll virus infections (1995) Virology, 211, pp. 33-41Carrington, J.C., Cary, S.M., Parks, T.D., Dougherty, W.G., A second proteinase encoded by a plant potyvirus genome (1989) EMBO J, 8, pp. 365-370Carrington, J.C., Dougherty, W.G., Small nuclear inclusion protein encoded by a plant potyvirus genome is a protease (1987) J Virol, 61, pp. 2540-2548Carrington, J.C., Dougherty, W.G., Processing of the tobacco etch virus 49K protease requires autoproteolysis (1987) Virology, 160, pp. 355-362Carrington, J.C., Dougherty, W.G., A viral cleavage site cassette: Identification of amino acid sequences required for tobacco etch virus polyprotein processing (1988) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 85, pp. 3391-3395Carrington, J.C., Freed, D.D., Cap-independent enhancement of translation by a plant potyvirus 5′ nontranslated region (1990) J Virol, 64, pp. 1590-1597Carrington, J.C., Freed, D.D., Leinicke, A.J., Bipartite signal sequence mediates nuclear translocation of the plant potyviral NIa protein (1991) Plant Cell, 3, pp. 953-962Carrington, J.C., Herndon, K.L., Characterization of the potyviral HC-Pro autoproteolytic cleavage site (1992) Virology, 187, pp. 308-315Carrington, J.C., Morris, T.J., High resolution mapping of carnation mottle virus-associated RNAs (1986) Virology, 150, pp. 196-206Cornelissen, B.J.C., Janssen, H., Zuidema, D., Bol, J.F., Complete nucleotide sequence of tobacco streak virus RNA3 (1984) Nucl Acids Res, 12, pp. 2427-2437Cornelissen, B.J.C., Linthorst, H.J.M., Brederode, F.T., Bol, J.F., Analysis of the genome structure of tobacco rattle virus strain PSG (1986) Nucl Acids Res, 14, pp. 2157-2169Dawson, W.O., Lehto, K.M., Regulation of tobamovirus gene expression (1990) Adv Virus Res, 38, pp. 307-342De Haan, P., Wagemakers, L., Goldbach, R., Peters, D., Tomato spotted wilt virus, a new member of the Bunyaviridae? (1989) Genetics and Pathogenicity of Negative Strand Viruses, pp. 287-290. , Kolakofsky, D, Mahy, BWJ (eds) Elsevier Science Publishers, AmsterdamDemler, S.A., De Zoeten, G.A., The nucleotide sequence and luteovirus-like nature of RNA 1 of an aphid non-transmissible strain of pea enation mosaic virus (1991) J Gen Virol, 72, pp. 1819-1834Demler, S.A., Rucker, D.G., De Zoeten, G.A., The chimeric nature of the genome of pea enation mosaic virus: The independent replication of RNA 2 (1993) J Gen Virol, 74, pp. 1-14Dessens, J.T., Lomonossoff, G.P., Mutational analysis of the putative catalytic triad of the cowpea mosaic virus 24K protease (1991) Virology, 184, pp. 738-746Di, R., Dinesh-Kumar, S.P., Miller, W.A., Translational frameshifting by barley yellow dwarf virus RNA (PAV serotype) in Escherichia coli and in eukaryotic cell-free extracts (1993) Mol Plant-Microbe Interact, 6, pp. 444-452Dinesh-Kumar, S.P., Brault, V., Miller, W.A., Precise mapping and in vitro translation of a trifunctional subgenomic RNA of barley yellow dwarf virus (1992) Virology, 187, pp. 711-722Dinesh-Kumar, S.P., Miller, W.A., Control of start codon choice on a plant viral RNA encoding overlapping genes (1993) Plant Cell, 5, pp. 679-692Ding, S.-W., Anderson, B.J., Haase, H.R., Symons, R.H., New overlapping gene encoded by the cucumber mosaic virus genome (1994) Virology, 198, pp. 593-601Ding, S.-W., Howe, J., Keese, P., Mackenzie, A., Meek, D., Osorio-Keese, M., Skotnicki, M., Gibbs, A., The tymobox, a sequence shared by most tymoviruses: Its use in molecular studies of tymoviruses (1990) Nucl Acids Res, 18, pp. 1181-1187Dolja, V.V., Atabekov, J.G., The structure of barley stripe mosaic virus double-stranded RNAs (1987) FEBS Lett, 214, pp. 313-316Dolja, V.V., Grama, D.P., Morozov, S.Y., Atabekov, J.G., Potato virus X-related single- And double-stranded RNAs (1987) FEBS Lett, 214, pp. 308-312Dougherty, W.G., Parks, T.D., Molecular genetic and biochemical evidence for the involvement of the heptapeptide cleavage sequence in determining the reaction profile at two tobacco etch virus cleavage sites in cell-free assays (1989) Virology, 172, pp. 145-155Dougherty, W.G., Parks, T.D., Post-translational processing of the tobacco etch virus 49-kDa small nuclear inclusion polyprotein: Identification of an internal cleavage site and delimitation of VPg and proteinase domains (1991) Virology, 183, pp. 449-456Dougherty, W.G., Semler, B.L., Expression of virus-encoded proteinases: Functional and structural similarities with cellular enzymes (1993) Microbiol Rev, 57, pp. 781-822Elliott, R.M., Molecular biology of the Bunyaviridae (1990) J Gen Virol, 73, pp. 501-522Filichkin, S.A., Lister, R.M., McGrath, P.F., Young, M.J., In vivo expression and mutational analysis of the barley yellow dwarf virus readthrough gene (1994) Virology, 205, pp. 290-299French, R., Ahlquist, P., Characterization and engineering of sequences controlling in vivo synthesis of brome mosaic virus subgenomic RNA (1988) J Virol, 62, pp. 2411-2420Fritsch, C., Mayo, M., Hemmer, O., Properties of the satellite RNA of nepoviruses (1993) Biochimie, 75, pp. 561-567Gallie, D.R., Posttranscriptional regulation of gene expression in plants (1993) Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol, 44, pp. 77-105Garcia, A., Van Duin, J., Pleij, C.W.A., Differential response to frameshift signals in eukaryotic and prokaryotic translational systems (1993) Nucl Acids Res, 21, pp. 401-406Gargouri, R., Joshi, R.L., Bol, J.F., Astier-Manifacier, S., Haenni, A.-L., Mechanism of synthesis of turnip yellow mosaic virus coat protein subgenomic RNA in vivo (1989) Virology, 171, pp. 386-393Ge, Z., Hiruki, C., Roy, K.L., Nucleotide sequence of sweet clover necrotic mosaic virus RNA-1 (1993) Virus Res, 28, pp. 113-124Geballe, A.P., Morris, D.R., Initiation codons within 5′-leaders of mRNAs as regulators of translation (1994) Trends Biochem Sci, 19, pp. 159-164German, S., Candresse, T., Lanneau, M., Huet, J.C., Pernollet, J.C., Dunez, J., Nucleotide sequence and genomic organization of apple chlorotic leaf spot closterovirus (1990) Virology, 179, pp. 104-112Ghosh, A., Rutgers, T., Ke-Qiang, M., Kaesberg, P., Characterization of the coat protein mRNA of southern bean mosaic virus and its relationship to the genomic RNA (1981) J Virol, 39, pp. 87-92Gilmer, D., Bouzoubaa, S., Hehn, A., Guilley, H., Richards, K., Jonard, G., Efficient cell-to-cell movement of beet necrotic yellow vein virus requires 3′ proximal genes located on RNA 2 (1992) Virology, 189, pp. 40-47Goelet, P., Lomonossoff, G.P., Butler, P.J.G., Akam, M.E., Gait, M.J., Karn, J., Nucleotide sequence of tobacco mosaic virus RNA (1982) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 79, pp. 5818-5822Goldbach, R., Le Gall, O., Wellink, J., Alpha-like viruses in plants (1991) Semin Virol, 2, pp. 19-25Gorbalenya, A.E., Koonin, E.V., Viral proteins containing the purine NTP-binding sequence pattern (1989) Nucl Acids Res, 17, pp. 8413-8440Gorbalenya, A.E., Koonin, E.V., Blinov, V.M., Donchenko, A.P., Sobemovirus genome appears to encode a serine protease related to cysteine proteases of picornaviruses (1988) FEBS Lett, 236, pp. 287-290Gould, A.R., Symons, R.H., Cucumber mosaic virus RNA 3 (1982) Eur J Biochem, 126, pp. 217-226Goulden, M.G., Lomonossoff, G.P., Davies, J.W., Wood, K.R., The complete nucleotide sequence of PEBV RNA2 reveals the presence of a novel open reading frame and provides insights into the structure of tobraviral subgenomic promoters (1990) Nucl Acids Res, 18, pp. 4507-4512Gramstat, A., Courtpozanis, A., Rohde, W., The 12 kDa protein of potato virus M displays properties of a nucleic acid-binding regulatory protein (1990) FEBS Lett, 276, pp. 34-38Gramstat, A., Prüfer, D., Rohde, W., The nucleotide acid-binding zinc finger protein of potato virus M is translated by internal initiation as well as by ribosomal frameshifting involving a shifty stop codon and a novel mechanism of P-site slippage (1994) Nucl Acids Res, 22, pp. 3911-3917Grieco, F., Burgyan, J., Russo, M., The nucleotide sequence of cymbidium ringspot virus RNA (1989) Nucl Acids Res, 17, p. 6383Guilley, H., Briand, J.P., Nucleotide sequence of turnip yellow mosaic virus coat protein mRNA (1978) Cell, 15, pp. 113-122Guilley, H., Carrington, J.C., Balàzs, E., Jonard, G., Richards, K., Morris, T.J., Nucleotide sequence and genome organization of carnation mottle virus RNA (1985) Nucl Acids Res, 13, pp. 6663-6677Gustafson, G., Armour, S.L., The complete nucleotide sequence of RNAβ from the type strain of barley stripe mosaic virus (1986) Nucl Acids Res, 14, pp. 3895-3909Gustafson, G., Hunter, B., Hanau, R., Armour, S.L., Jackson, A.O., Nucleotide sequence and genomic organization of barley stripe mosaic virus RNAγ (1987) Virology, 158, pp. 394-406Hamilton, W.D.O., Boccara, M., Robinson, D.J., Baulcombe, D.C., The complete nucleotide sequence of tobacco rattle virus RNA-1 (1987) J Gen Virol, 68, pp. 2563-2575Harbison, S.-A., Davies, J.W., Wilson, T.M.A., Expression of high molecular weight polypeptides by carnation mottle virus RNA (1985) J Gen Virol, 66, pp. 2597-2604Hayes, R.J., Brunt, A.A., Buck, K.W., Gene mapping and expression of tomato bushy stunt virus (1988) J Gen Virol, 69, pp. 3047-3057Hearne, P.Q., Knorr, D.A., Hillman, B.I., Morris, T.J., The complete genome structure and synthesis of infectious RNA from clones of tomato bushy stunt virus (1990) Virology, 177, pp. 141-151Herzog, E., Guilley, H., Fritsch, C., Translation of the second gene of peanut clump virus RNA 2 occurs by leaky scanning in vitro (1995) Virology, 208, pp. 215-225Herzog, E., Guilley, H., Manohar, S.K., Dollet, M., Richards, K., Fritsch, C., Jonard, G., Complete nucleotide sequence of peanut clump virus RNA 1 and relationships with other fungus-transmitted rod-shaped viruses (1994) J Gen Virol, 75, pp. 3147-3155Hsu, Y.H., Brakke, M.K., Cell-free translation of soil-borne wheat mosaic virus RNAs (1985) Virology, 143, pp. 272-279Huisman, M.J., Linthorst, H.J.M., Bol, J.F., Cornelissen, B.J.C., The complete nucleotide sequence of potato virus X and its homologies at the amino acid level with various plus-stranded RNA viruses (1988) J Gen Virol, 69, pp. 1789-1798Hunter, T.R., Hunt, T., Knowland, J., Zimmern, D., Messenger RNA for the coat protein of tobacco mosaic virus (1976) Nature, 260, pp. 759-764Ishikawa, M., Meshi, T., Motoyoshi, F., Takamatsu, N., Okada, Y., In vitro mutagenesis of the putative replicase genes of tobacco mosaic virus (1986) Nucl Acids Res, 14, pp. 8291-8305Jacks, T., Madhani, H.D., Masiarz, F.R., Varmus, H.E., Signals for ribosomal frameshifting in the Rous sarcoma virus gag-pol region (1988) Cell, 55, pp. 447-1158Jackson, R.J., Howell, M.T., Kaminski, A., The novel mechanism of initiation of picornavirus RNA translation (1990) Trends Biochem Sci, 15, pp. 477-483Johnston, J.C., Rochon, D.M., Deletion analysis of the promoter for the cucumber necrosis virus 0.9-kb subgenomic RNA (1995) Virology, 214, pp. 100-109Joshi, S., Pleij, C.W.A., Haenni, A.-L., Chapeville, F., Bosch, L., Properties of the tobacco mosaic virus intermediate length RNA-2 and its translation (1983) Virology, 127, pp. 100-111Kadaré, G., Rozanov, M., Haenni, A.-L., Expression of the turnip yellow mosaic virus proteinase in Escherichia coli and determination of the cleavage site within the 206 kDa protein (1995) J Gen Virol, 76, pp. 2853-2857Karasev, A.V., Boyko, V.P., Gowda, S., Nikolaeva, O.V., Hilf, M.E., Koonin, E.V., Niblett, C.L., Dawson, W.O., Complete sequence of the citrus tristeza virus RNA genome (1995) Virology, 208, pp. 511-520Kashiwazaki, S., Minobe, Y., Hibino, H., Nucleotide sequence of barley yellow mosaic virus RNA 2 (1991) J Gen Virol, 72, pp. 995-999Kashiwazaki, S., Minobe, Y., Omura, T., Hibino, H., Nucleotide sequence of barley yellow mosaic virus RNA 1: A close evolutionary relationship with potyviruses (1990) J Gen Virol, 71, pp. 2781-2790Kelly, L., Gerlach, W.L., Waterhouse, P.M., Characterization of the subgenomic RNAs of an Australian isolate of barley yellow dwarf luteovirus (1994) Virology, 202, pp. 565-573Kim, K.H., Lommel, S.A., Identification and analysis of the site of -1 ribosomal frameshifting in red clover necrotic mosaic virus (1994) Virology, 200, pp. 574-582Klaassen, V.A., Boeshore, M.L., Koonin, E.V., Tian, T., Falk, B.W., Genome structure and phylogenetic analysis of lettuce infectious yellows virus, a whitefly-transmitted, bipartite closterovirus (1995) Virology, 208, pp. 99-110Kormelink, R., Van Poelwijk, F., Peters, D., Goldbach, R., Nonviral heterogeneous sequences at the 5′ ends of tomato spotted wilt mRNAs (1992) J Gen Virol, 73, pp. 2125-2128Kozak, M., Bifunctional messenger RNAs in eukaryotes (1986) Cell, 47, pp. 481-483Kozak, M., Influences of mRNA secondary structure on initiation by eukaryotic ribosomes (1986) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 83, pp. 2850-2854Kozak, M., The scanning model for translation: An update (1989) J Cell Biol, 108, pp. 229-241